History of Scandinavia, from the early times of the Norsemen and Vikings to the present day

Front matter

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Preface

Although soon after my arrival in the city of New- York, about two years ago, learning by experience, what already long had been known to me, the great attention the enlightened population of the United States pay to science and the arts, and that they admit that unquestionable truth, that the very best blessings are the intellectual, I was, however, soon aware, that Scandinavian affairs were too little known in this country. Induced by that ardent patriotism peculiar to the Norsemen, I immediately resolved, as far as it lay in my power, to throw some light upon this, here, almost terra incognita^ and compose a brief History of Scandinavia, which once was the arbiter of the European \ system, and by which America, in reality, had been discovered as much as upwards of five

VIU PREFACE.

centuries before Columbus reached St. Salvador roY Guanahany; without therefore saying that the few traditions about the Western hemisphere, very likely existing in the time of Columbus, have eclipsed that splendor which never will cease to invest the name of this unexampled discoverer.

The value of history being too generally appreciated to require any comment, I submit, to the forbearing criticism of the American public, this my essay of making the Scandinavian countries, especially Denmark, my fatherland, better known in the United States than before has been the case. Notwithstanding this composition has been a *' labor of love," it has, on account of the want of sufficient literary sources, and of a thorough fajniliarity with the English language, for the stiffness of which I have to ask a kind forbearance, by no means been a short and facile undertaking, but has occupied my whole days and evenings for a long space of time. Nevertheless, should the present work, which I only offer as an introduction, be found calculated to promote even a little interest here for the valuable history of the North, my desire and purposes will be fully realized, and the great

PREFACE. IX

difficulties under which I have labored, richly rewarded.

May the Great Ruler of the Universe, who has borne me in safety across the ocean, abundantly pour blessings down upon each country that loves Him and the power of the atoning blood of His son ; and allow me to express this wish especially for the kingdom of Denmark, where I have learned to prize knowledge above rubies, and left dear remembrances, never to be forgotten.

THE AUTHOR.

New- York, August 1st, 1858.

REV. PAUL C. SINDING.

My Dear Sir : "

The Scandinavian peninsulas — one hanging down from the mysterious North, the other jutting forth from the central mass of civilized Europe, to meet its comrade — are emblematic (in their geographical position) of the twofold historic interest with which they are clothed. While the legendary period of other peoples occupies a place subordinate to their clearer history, Scandinavia calls up before us, with equal power, fthe mist-robed Odin and the mail-clad Vasa. > The strange adventures amid Northern seas, in a primitive age, are as prominent as the leadership of European politics in an age of remarkable light. We oddly mingle the old and the new, the dim and the bright, when we turn to Scandinavia, as we do with no other land. This double character naturally lends peculiar attraction to its history. Yet, with all this attraction, the history of no part of Europe is less familiar to the general mind ; probably because the Scandinavian countries lie somewhat off from the world's great highways, and participate but moderately in the world's chief commerce. This should not be. The ignorance is a fault, especially among us of English descent, whose ancestral history is so intimately and variously associated with that of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The Norsemen have left the memorials of their habitation on the coasts and islands of Scotland, where Runic inscriptions tell the story of their prowess, while through much of England the familiar names of towns and hamlets are purely Norse. These are the fruits of the wild adventures of the Vikings. A Danish dynasty once ruled our fatherland, and the Conqueror who founded the present succession of British monarchs, was himself of Scandinavian blood, transplanted to a more southern

XU LETTER FROM PROFESSOR CROSBY.

clime. The stalwart men, who could venture upon unknown, cold, and stormy seas, in their small barks, on lengthy voyages, until, passing the new-found shores of Iceland, they landed among the green leaves of the Viinland coast, deserve to be known and saluted by every succeeding age.

And their posterity, still maintaining the best characteristics of the fathers, invite our regard and claim our encomiums. The names l^ of Tegner, Hans Andersen, Fredericka Bremer, in literature ; of Clausen, Madvig, and Rafn, in theological, philological, and archaeological research ; of Thorvaldsen in art. and of Ole Bull and Jenny Lind in music, are as household words in our American homes. Our merited regard for these well known worthies of our own day, must render keener our appetite for Scandinavian knowledge. This appetite amounts to a necessity, when we mark, that our ancestral history and mythology, and our copaposite philology, must be elucidated by the light of these chronicles and languages of the Norsemen.

It is, therefore, full time that our Universities should have their chairs of Scandinavian literature, as a needful part of the apparatus for a thorough English education, to render more complete the examination of the roots of our speech and race. While this want is felt, we may gladly hail any contribution to American literature, which tends to open this interesting field of research. In your volume, my dear sir, I recognize such a pioneer, and rejoice to give it welcome. In it may many laggards in this lore find an introduction to the old romantic legends of the Skalds, as well as to the more recent but no less romantic stories of the great and magnanimous Gustavus Vasa, Gustavus Adolphus, and the brilliant comets, '> Tordenskjold and Charles the Twelfth.

HOWARD CROSBY, A. M., Professor of Greek Language and Literature in the University of the City of New-York.

In the widest sense History must be considered the knowledge, the portraying, or the total sum of all that in nature, amongst men, and in the whole circle of experiences, there is^ or comes to pass, ivas, or came to pass, and which accordingly only can he learnt through experience or instruction. History is, consequently, the opposite of Philosophy, which is the knowledge of all needful and universal truths, comprehensible only by the mere reason. But, nevertheless, if the cultivator of History is not guided by Philosophy, or the rules of reason. History will to him be only a barren act of memory, without life or nourishment for the understanding and heart ; in short. History will not be a science to him ; he will not clearly comprehend the consequences of events in their pragmatical connection. " It little concerns us to know," says Rollin, '' that there were once such men as Dschengischan, Caesar,

Alexander, G-ustavus Adolphus, Napoleon, Washington, and so on, and that they lived in this or that period, or died in this or that day ; but it highly concerns us to know the steps by which they rose to the exalted pitch of grandeur we cannot but admire, what it was that constituted their glory and felicity, what were the causes of their declension and fall, and how in religious and moral respects they have influenced their own and after-ages ; all of which we cannot obtain but by Philosophy, or more properly, by the Philosophy of History, through which we ascertain the causes of things or their phenomena. History itself is immense in reference to compass, circumference, and contents. A boundless ocean of facts and events lies behind us, while each day and each hour the stream of time is swelling in new and large billows of events, visions, and names ; all of which, seen in the light of truth and pragmatical connection, are of exceeding interest and use. And of such great interest and use is the History of the Scandinavian Kingdoms, taken, as all History must be, in due connection with the contemporaneous History of other lands. This History is that of a brave and interesting people, which, on a large scale, has influenced the world, and is yet so little known to the United States, where I, however, rejoice at seeing

SO mucL. interest paid to the culture of science. A talented young American wrote, last summer, an eloquent article in the Journal of Commerce^ inscribed " Scandinavian History — a Work Wanted," wherein he says : " There is a nation, even now extant, possessing as brave a History as that of the Romans, as poetic as that of the Grreeks ; a nation that has controlled the World's History in many things, and at many times, and whose achievements in war and in letters, are worthy the most heroic age of Rome and the most finished period of Greece ; a nation whose Philosophy outran their age, and anticipated results that have been slowly occurring ever since. This reference," he says, " can be true of but one people, and that people is the Norsemen, the dwellers in Scandinavia, who lived as heroes, lords, and conquerors ; who, sailing out of the ice and desolation in which they were born and nurtured, conquered England, Scotland and Ireland ; ravaged Brittany and Normandy ; discovered and colonized Iceland and Grreenland ; and they can be said, with confidence, to have crossed the Atlantic in their crazy barks, and to have discovered this very continent, before Columbus, to have anchored in Vineyard Sound, and left a monument behind them ; and wheresoever they went, they went as lords and rulers. And then their religion," he continues — " what a wild, massive, manly mythology ! With nothing of the soft sentimentalities of more southern people, but continent of much that revelation has assured us to be true in doctrine — preaching ever the necessity of right, and doing right — of manliness, honesty and responsibility, rewards and punishments." And he thus concludes : '' Is there not some one who will plunge in medias res, and, bringing order out of confusion, give us this so greatly desiderated History of Scandinavia ?"

These eloquent words, a correspondence with the talented writer, and later, an interview with him, have inspired me, a native Dane, having completed my theological studies at the University of Copenhagen, and penetrated with patriotic feelings, with a . mind and courage to plunge in medias res, and to the best of my ability to do justice to that undeniably interesting subject. I dare not hope at all for such a success as has crowned a Bancroft, Irving, and Prescott ; nevertheless I will plunge in medias res, and go fearlessly through all the difficulties which attend an explorer, flattering myself in hoping that the American public will bestow upon me their kind attention, and exercise forbearance with somewhat unidiomatic English. Jacta est alea, and I will commence by describing the state and condition of Denmark^ in the most ancient timeSj until the Provincial Territories were united^ and Christianity began to be promulgated by Ansgarius, a learned and pious monk from Westphalia, in Germany.

HISTORY OP SCANDIMYIA.

The Origin of the People — ^Mythology and Public Worship — Language — Skalds or Bards — Runes — The Warfaring Life of the People — Piracy — ^Duels — Foster-brother Covenant — State and Condition of the Female Sex — Means of getting a livelihood by — Victuals — Trade — Dwellingplaces — ^Weapons — Funeral Solemnities — State Affairs — King — Peasants and Prefects — Slaves — Norse Expeditions — The Oldest Kings.

The present inha'bitants of Denmark, as well as of Norway and Sweden, are successors of the enormous Gothic tribe formerly dwelling round about the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to which district this tribe seems to have come from yet more eastern regions, afterwards wandering up to the northern coasts of the Baltic, whence the one branch of the Grothio tribe departed to the opposite tracts of Scandinavia, peopling and settling the southern part of Sweden, Skane, Halland, and Bleking, the Danish islands, together with the northern part of the Jutlandish peninsula, and likewise spreading itself over the greater part of Norway. The other branch of these ancient and distinguished Goths remained south of the Baltic, and oftentimes changing their dwellings, afterwards prevailed in Grer-

A. D., many, scattering under the great European

^''^- emigration over a great part of southern Europe,

G-reece, Italy, Spain, Portugal and France, making

considerable conquests, and even often exacting tribute.

A. D., Divided here into Ostro and Yisi-Groths, they

^93- erected, under their chief leader, Theodorik, the

Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy, and the Yisigothic in

A. D., Spain under Astulph, and their influence and ^23. that of their descendants have since been permanent in Europe and the world. On the southern borders of Denmark, in the present Duchy of Holstein, dwelt the Saxons, belonging to the German G-oths ; higher up in Schleswig and in the southern and western part of Jutland dwelt the Angles and Jutlanders, forming, in a certain way, an intermediate line between the Scandinavian and German Goths. But as a great

A. D., number of Angles, Saxons, and Jutlanders, in the ^^9- middle of the fifth century, led by the brothers, Hengist and Horst, departed for England, founding there the Saxon Heptarchy, the more northern Goths settling in the regions which those had left, were afterwards the prevailing tribe in all Jutland and Schleswig. On the entrance of the G-oths into Scandinavia, the land was inhabited by two reciprocally kindred nations, whose present names are Laplanders and Finns. Both of them had come from the east, but the Laplanders were forced by the Finns up to the remotest parts of

Nonvay and Sweden, where remnants of them are yet to "be found. The Finns themselves were, after a vahant resistance, pressed back by the G-oths, whose descendants at present live in Finland, which now belongs to the Russian Empire. It is also possible that some Celtic tribes, the primitive inhabitants of the south and west of Europe, have lived in the Scandinavian countries. The culture of the oldest dwellers of the north was at a very low ebb ; they lived dispersed, rambling* about the unmense and impenetrable forests, and on the coasts adjacent to the ocean and the numerous lakes, many of which are now transformed into moors and marshy land, or dried up altogether. Grame from the forests, and fish from the sea and lakes, supplied the inhabitants with nutriment and hides and furs to protect their bodies agamst the severe chmate ; and in such respects they were very well off, wanting nothing fortune could supply. Their weapons and-^>^] hunting-tools were stones, but often made with curious ' and admirable workmanship — the use of metals bemg yet unknown.

Tery interesting, deep, and instructive is the religion or the mythology of the Norsemen, wherein their character and peculiar views of life have received a proper embodiment, containing much of the spirit of obedience, for which St. Paul praises the heathens that are without the law, but do by nature the tilings contained in the law, showing the work of the law written in their hearts. Their religion, better, perhaps, called their mythology, announced also clearly the important doctrine of future responsibility — rewards and punishments. At all events, it was great, nervous, and poetic, and, in many respects, fit for facilitating the introduction of the higher light of Revelation, which first in the ninth century was brought to them. In the abyss of ages — thus read the old Sagas- — all was without form and life, and darkness was upon the face of the deep, on which B. c, the warmth was continually operating, until '^^- Ymer, a giant sprang forth. But Odin, a Scandinavian Deity, yet supposed to be a historical person, having come from Asgard on the river Don (Tanais) in southern Russia, killed Ymer and his whole offspring; the bad and evil fetters and Thyrsers (giants) were drowned in that stream of blood proceeding and flowing from Ymer's corpse, except one, who propagated the generation of Jetters or Thyrsers, and lived in continual enmity with gods and men. Of Ymer's body — thus read the old Sagas — Odin moulded and framed the ordained and settled world with mountains, rivers, lakes, trees, and clouds ; and of the great ash-tree, Yggdrasill, whose topmost branches were said to dance eternally in the heavenly light, he moulded the first couple of men, Askur and Embta, who resided in Midgard.

The gods themselves live in Asgard, close by Upsala, in Sweden. Odin, superior to all the other gods, is father of gods and men, and rules the whole world, which he, by his wise and judicious eye, contemplates and views from his high Hlidskjalf^ his heavenly seat, his royal palace. The peculiar Grod of War and Thunder is Thor, a son of Odin, most ardently worshipped by the warlike Norsemen, and kept long in memory even after the other gods were thrown into oblivion. He being considered the good principle, and chosen to bruise the head of all the evil principles, is incessantly fighting with ^ the Jetters, slaying them with his hammer, the heavy j Mjolnir, The brave having found an honorable death oh~the battle field were taken up to the mansion of the gods, and came to the splendid castle, Valhalla, radiating with shining shields and glittering swords, and where Odin, Thor, Freia, Frigga, and the Nomas, with their irrevocable decrees, were assembled. Odin's maidens, the Valkyriers, were continually rushing thi'ough the ether, seeking in all countries for the bravest heroes, whom they marked with their spearpoint, when the hour of death had come. The departed heroes, called Einheriars, pass their time in Valhalla, having every day the pleasure of arming themselves, marshaling themselves in military order, fighting and knocking down one another; but in the evening they get up again and return to Yalhalla, where a festival meal is prepared for them, consisting of the flesh of a boar, called Sahrimner, which, though butchered every day, returns to life agam, and the beautiful virgins, the Yalkyriers, present to them the mead-horn, of which they drink till they are in a state of intoxication ; but the pleasures of love do not enter at all into the joys of this extraordinary Paradise. Odin sits by himself at a particular table. A different lot or fate fell to the cowards who feared the battle and dangers of war, and allowed themselves to be cut off by disease. Cast down to Helheim (hell) they had to continue their life there, as silent, trembling shadows, without pleasure and exploits, and under the perpetual suffering of anguish, remorse, and famine. Odin himself, Thor, and the keen Tyr, belonged to the Asatribe; while Freia, the goddess of love, together with Njord and Frigga^ disposing of tranquil occupations, hunting, fishing, favorable winds on the ocean, and plenteous years, were ascribed to the gentle Vane-tribe.

Nevertheless, the dominion of the Yalhalla gods was not to last forever, but the power to be given to another god, who should judge men conformably to a higher law, not as they were brave or cowardly, but as they were good or evil, for the Edda of Snorro says: "The world shall be judged in righteousness." The Yalhalla gods, however, were safe as long as Baldur, the wisest and most righteous of all gods, and protector of innocence, was living. But the cunning and designing Loke, the evil deity and the father of treachery, by birth half related to the gods, half to the Jetters, and father of Mela, the Fenriswolf, and the dreadful Midgards serpent, smuggling himself into the fellowship of the gods, so prevailed, by his craftiness, upon Baldiir's own brother, as to kill him. Now nothing can avert the declension of the gods and the perdition of the world. The sun becomes eclipsed, the ocean overflows, and the Midgards serpent rises from the deep. Loke and Jetters confederated with the burning and consuming Surtur^ rush now upon Yalhalla, which, together with Niftheim (Helheim) perish in Ragnarok, the twilight of the gods. All gods and Einheriars fall in the battle, and the whole world perishes. But a new earth rises from the ocean, and the Almighty G-od descends himself to judge men in righteousness. The honest and true get permission to enter into Gimle — Odin's gold-radiating palace — -to live there in eternal joy with the Almighty, and in fellowship with the other gods, who had been purified through the flames. Gimle has no need of the sun, neither of the moon, for Odin gives it light himself. But the evil, perjurers, murderers, and seducers, could not enter into that society, but are cast down to Nastrond, the eternal fire, where they have to expiate their misdeeds crossing streams of yellow matter, and suffering great pain in the eternal flames prepared for them.

The gods were worshiped partly in the open air, in groves, or places encompassed by a circle of big stones, partly in wooden temples, among which that in Upsala (Sweden) was most famous. The public worship — the main point of which were sacrifices — was in general administered by the head of the family ; at the temples priests were appointed — sometimes, also, priestesses. In order to honor the gods several great annual feasts were established, among which Juel (Christmas) was most remarkable as the most joyous, and festival season to the Norsemen. From all quarters of the country men and women then resorted to the temples, making large offerings ; friends and relatives presented one another with gifts, and many days were spent in feasts and gay compotations. In the spring there was a sacrificial offering, to ensure luck in war and in Viking expeditions (piracies) usually beginning at that season. "With these barbarous people the number nine was supposed to have something in it of peculiar sanctity. Every ninth month, therefore, a sacrifice was offered up to the gods. The usual victims were horses, oxen, young swine, hawks, and cocks. From the entrails and the running blood the priests told the people their fortunes, and the flesh was prepared for a meal to the assembled sacrificers. Sometimes even men were offered — ^mostly slaves and prisoners of war — for the Norsemen, in their uncultivated state, were, to a certain extent, cannibals ; to which Dithmar^ a reliable historian of the eleventh century, bears witness, telling that before Odin's arrival the goddess Hertha was, in Leira^ in the island of Sjelland, (Zeeland,) worshiped with great solemnity; and that every ninth year, in the month of January, the Danes offered up to her ninety-nine men, and the

HISTORY OF SCANDmAVIA. 27

same numLer of horses, dogs, and cocks, in the firm assurance of thus obtaining her favor and protection.

The different classes of Norsemen, being of the same extraction, had also the same language, except some provincialisms, idioms, and diiferences in pronunciation, entirely inevitable where the same language is spoken over extensive tracts and territories. While thus the old Scandinavian language, in process of time, was undergoing several alterations, it was in the remote Iceland kept in its perfect purity, free from all foreign idioms. The general nomination of the common language was Danish tongue, the Danes being a long time considered the main people, and through several centuries playing the most important parts in the North. The language improved by discourses in public meetings, and by the songs of Skalds or Bards ; and later, when the use of letters became customary, by a multitude of historical writings, particularly composed by the Icelanders skilled in old sayings, which were handed clown to them from antiquity, a considerable number of which writings are yet left. The poets, generally called Skalds, who by their songs have immortalized ancestral achievements and exploits, were seldom missing in public meetings, drinking bouts, and other festival occasions. They stayed often at the royal courts and the manors of the Prefects, where they propagated, through their songs, achievements and exploits of Kings and Prefects to succeeding generations ; and often being, not only eye-witnesses themselves, "but even partakers of the achievements they have glorified in their songs. Their poetic productions, a great number of v^hich have been preserved uncorrupted dov^n to our very days, are of importance for History.

The Norsemen had some peculiar letters, consisting of sixteen marks or characters, called Runes, the origin of which descends to the remotest antiquity. They were used not only by the Norsemen, but also by kindred tribes abroad. The signification of the word Rune (mystery) seems to allude to the fact that, originally, only a few have known the use of these marks, and that they mostly have been applied to secret tricks, witchcraft, and enchantments. There were both plain and artificial Runes, called Lonrunes, (the Scandinavian word Lon denoting secret,) with the latter of which a great superstition was connected, the priests believing, by aid of them, to be able to haunt a place, to dull weapons, to stop thunder and hurricanes, to cure or occasion diseases, and so on ; and, when engraved on nails, wrists, rudders of ships, handles of swords, these Lonrunes were supposed able to bring a thing to a happy issue, or avert dangers. But the Runes were also used as communications in writing ; for instance, on being engraved on thin wooden tablets, which were sent away as letters, or on being used to record a series of kings, genealogical tables, and the like. Worthy to be noted is also the use of Runes for inscriptions on stones, in order to preserve the remembrance of celebrated men and their achievements. To the most remarkable of such Rune-stones, to be found round about in the Scandinavian countries, belong the two JelUngstones in Southern Jutland, where it is supposed that the king, Gorm the Old, and his queen, Thyra Dannebod^ have their sepulchre.

The warlike mind, so strongly and clearly expressed in the Northern mythology, appears in all parts of the popular life. Tranquil occupations did not enjoy any reputation among the ancient Norsemen, while war and fighting were a sure way of acquiring an eminent name with contemporaries, glorious fame with succeeding generations, and means and riches in abundance. To eat bread in the sweat of the brow was considered inglorious. Life was of little value, and had to be risked at any rate for honor ; and an old warrior, when unable to wield his sword, often caused one of his friends to kill him, to avoid a natural death, which was an exclusion from the privileges of Valhalla. But, although frequent wars and mutual challenges were carried on in Scandinavia, the Norsemen often sailed to far-off regions to win honor and renown. Yet, however, not only desire for warfare allured the Norsemen from home, but much more, the necessity of procuring such necessaries of life and such enjoyments as they could not have in their own countries. In the spring, great crowds of new-raised men, fit to bear arms, usually went away from home, mercilessly plundering coasts and lands, wherever they made their appearance, and in the fall returning with rich spoil and prisoners of war, who thereupon became slaves. Such expeditions were called Vikingefarter, and the partakers Vikings. Some made even such a life a business, and spent nearly all then' time on the ocean as pirates, despising the easier country life, and speaking disdainfully of sleeping under a sooty ceiling, or sitting round a warm stove with old women.

According to the character of the Norsemen, their disputes were nearly always settled by arms. "It was more honorable for men," say the old Sagas, " to fight by sword than to quarrel by tongue ;" and when, therefore, a quarrel arose, either on account of personal offences, or concerning inheritance and borders, then the sword was usually the judge. After challenging one another to a duel, they met on a place surrounded by a circle of big stones, or hedged in by wicker-work, or also on a small island, and if the challenged did not punctually make his appearance, he lost his reputation ; nobody would keep company with him, and sometimes even a high pole was erected, on which Runes were engraved, announcing his name and infamy. The challenged, however, was permitted to prevail upon another to fight instead of himself; but, in general, they were loth to do so, as it always set the principal in an unfavorable light. One mu«der became generally the cause of another ; for, although fines could be paid as atonement for a murder committed in an open and honest duel, the near relatives often required blood for blood ; a manner of thinking which a father, being offered money for a murder committed on his only son, properly expressed in answering : "I will not carry the corpse of my deai'ly beloved son in my pocket-book." And if a murder was committed cunningly and treacherously, then vengeance of blood was an unavoidable obligation, from which the surviving relatives could not withdraw without total loss of their reputation.

Revengeful and inexorable as the Norsemen were in their enmity, so faithful and self-denying they proved themselves in their friendship. Warriors valuing one another highly, often made a contract called Foster-brother Covenant^ by which they, under the observance of different solemn ceremonies, mixed blood together, swearing allegiance, and binding themselves by a fearful oath to avenge the death of one another, by inflicting severe punishment upon the murderer. This covenant was now and then extended even so far as to promise not to outlive one another ; and the ancient History of Scandinavia sets forth many beautiful examples of such faithfulness and self-denying love. Though bloody and implacable in war, they were not strangers to the virtues of peace ; hospitality and kindness to strangers, which are the common virtues of rude nations, the dwellers of Scandinavia possessed in a very high degree, and appreciated highly, and they entertained for each other the most kindly feelings of regard. Every traveler was received kindly, and the person of the guest considered holy ; and when a man entered into the house of his enemy, with whom he everywhere else would have to abide the issue of a bloody fight, he was, as long as he was his guest, safe from any outrage or mischief. On the whole, it was as if the Apostle's words had been known to the ancient Norsemen : "Be not forgetful to entertain strangers, for thereby some have entertained angels unawares." Heb., xiii. 2. It is, therefore, very wrong, when some partial historians, as for instance Voltaire, set forth a few instances of brutality and barbarism among the Norsemen as characteristic of the manners and genius of the whole race.