A history of Germany, from the earliest times

Preface

De. David Mullek's "History of the German People" is the most useful and popular of the books from which the young people of Germany learn the story of their fatherland. Its author is scrupulously accurate in his assertions, and skillful in selecting and grouping the facts most worthy of remembrance ; and he has closely condensed his narrative, without destroying its vivacity and interest. His work has therefore been selected as the basis of a History of Germany for American students. In preparing this, I have made a careful examination of other standard books which treat of the same subject, or of parts of it — many of them the authorities used by Dr. Miiller — and have thus been able 'to correct a few errors of fact, and to make a large number of additions, designed to render more intelligible the sequence of events, or to complete a just view of popular movements or of eminent men. Dr. Miiller's history of his Third Period, including the two centuries preceding the Peformation, is but a meagre sketch of national events, supplemented with fuller accounts of the leading princely houses and of their territol'ies, in the expectation that each student will read that which relates to his own district or ruling family, and disregard the rest. For the American reader, who is interested in German history only as it is a part of universal history, these notices recall no local or patriotic associavi PKEFACE.

tions, but interrupt the narrative and confuse the memory. I have, therefore, from other sources — mainly the works of Ranke, Wirth, and Menzel — much enlarged the sketch of the history of the Empire during this period, incorporating in it whatever is of national interest in the local notices, and excluding all that could find no place in the general narrative. I have also added, in a final chapter, a brief outline of the principal events in the new Empire since the Peace of Frankfort, the date at which the latest edition of Dr. Miiller's work ends. Thus my large indebtedness to his admirable compendium for most of the materials of this work demands an ample acknowledgment; but no responsibility for the assertions and views here presented can be thrown upon him.

Chaelton T. Lewis.

New Yobk, June 2, 1874.

Book I

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE EMPIRE OF CHARLE- Chap. MAGNE. A.D. 800. Page

I. FromtheEarliestAgestotheGieatMigrationofNations,A.D.375 1 II. The Great Migrations and the Fall of the "Western Empire, A.D.

375-476 33

III. The Franks, the Merovingians, and the Family of Pepin, A.D.

481-768 56

IV. Charlemagne, A.D. 768-814 81

BOOK 11.

FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO THE GREAT INTERREGNUM. A.D. 814-1254.

V. The Carlovingian Emperors, A. D. 814-918 99

VL The Saxon Emperors, A.D. 919-1024 121

VII. Emperors of the House of Franconia, A.D. 1024-1125 151

VIII. The House of Hohenstaufen, A.D. 1138-1254 179

IX. German Civilization under the Hohenstaufen Emperors 212

Book III

FROM THE GREAT INTERREGNUM TO THE REFORMATION. A.D. 1254-1517.

X. To the Death of Lewis the Bavarian, A.D. 1 347 235

XI. From the Accession of Charles IV. to the Death of Sigismund,

XII. From the Accession of Albert II. to the Reformation, A.D.

1438-1517 286

XIII. German Civilization in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries ;

the Cities and their Leagues 317

XIV. German Civilization — Continued : Life of the People, Plague and

Persecution, Science and Art 333

Book IV

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY ; FROM LUTHER TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. A.D. 1517-1648.

XV. Beginning and Early Progress of the Reformation ; Luther 354

XVI. Formation of the Protestant Churches, and the Religious Wars

of Charles V 378 viii CONTENTS.

Chap. . Page XVII. From the Religious Peace of Augsburg to tlie Edict of Restitution, A.D. 1555-1G29 399

XVIII. End of the Thirty- Years' War ; the Peace of Westphalia,

XIX. German Civilization from Luther to the Peace of Westphalia 438

Book V

FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE PEACE OF PARIS. A.D. 1648-1810.

XX. Decline of the Hapsburg IMonarchy 456

XXI. Rise and Rapid Growth of Prussia 477

XXII. Frederick the Great, and his Reign until the Seven- Years'.

War 495

XXIII. The Seven-Years' War, A.D. 1 756-1763 51 1

XXIV. From the Peace of Hubertsburg to the French Revolution,

XXV. From the French Revolution to the Peace of Luneville, A.D.

1792-1 801 .548

XXVI. From the Peace of Luneville to the Peace of Tilsit, A.D.

1802-1807 , 564

XXVII. Napoleon's Supremacy in Germany, A.D. 1 807-1810 583

XXVIII. The Last Years of French Supremacy ; Napoleon in Russia 601 XXIX. The New Birth of German Patriotism ; the War of Freedom

XXX. The Emancipation of Germany; Napoleon Driven beyond the

Rhine ' 631

XXXI. The Overthrow of Napoleon ; Congress of Vienna 647

Book VI

FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS TO THE PRESENT TIME. A.D. 1815-1874.

XXXII. The Period of the German Confederation, A.D. 1815-1865.. 666

XXXIII. The War of 1866, and the North German Confederation,

XXXIV. The War of 1 870 to the Surrender of Sedan 712

XXXV. The War with France — Continued ; Capitulation of Paris ;

Peace of Frankfort -726

XXXV;^he New German Empti^A^D. 1871-1874 748

INDEX 775

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Frederick the Great Frontispiece.

^<3 EMPERORS OP GERMANY.

A.D. Page

768.— Charlemagne 81

8 1 i, — Lewis the Pious 99

876. — Lewis the German 10-t

876.— Charles the Fat 108

■ 887.— Arnulf of Carinthia 110

900.— Lewis the Child 115

91-1. — Conrad I., of Franco-

nia 117

936.— Otto the Great 129

983.— Otto III U2

1125. — Lothaire the Saxon 179

1138. — Conrad III 184

1152. — Frederick I., Barbarossa 187

1 197.— Philip of Suabia 201

1215.— Frederick II 204

1273.— Rudolph of Hapsburg. . . 240

] 292.— Adolphus of Nassau 244

A.D. Page

1314. — Lewis the Bavarian 253

1314.— Frederick the Fair 255

1347.— Charles IV 262

T349. — Giinther of Schwarzburg 264

1378.— Wenceslaus 269

1410.— Sigismund 277

1440.— Frederick III 291

1493.— Maximilian 1 300

1564.— Maximilian II 403

1576.— Rudolph II 405

1619.— Ferdinand II 412

1 637.— Ferdinand III 432

171 1.— Charles VI 471

1742.— Charles VII 502

1790.— Leopold II 539

1792.— Francis II 552

/ ir^€fi^if

HISTORY OF GERMANY.

Chapter I

FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE GREAT MIGRATION OF NA- TIONS, A.D. 375.

§ 1 . Character and Unity of German History. § 2. The Ancestors of the Germans in Asia. § 3. The Arian Migration. § 4. The German Race enter Europe. § 5. The Cimbri and Teutons. § 6. Their Battles with Marius. § 7. They enter Gaul. § 8. Cajsar and Ariovistus. § 9. Csesar crosses the Rhine. § 10. Caesar's Account of the Germans. § 11. Their Wars with Rome. § 1 2. Drusus and Tiberius. § 1 3. Arminius. § 14. Germanicus. § 15. Fall of Arminius and Maioboduus. § 16. The Germans desci-ibed by Tacitus. § 17. Their Political Institutions. § 18. Personal Allegiance. § 19. Their Religion. § 20. Compared with that of the Northmen. § 21. Roman Influence among the Germans. § 22. Cities and Trade. § 23. Germans in the Imperial Armies. § 24. The First German Kingdoms. § 25. The Goths. § 20. The Allemanni, Thuringii, Burgundii, Saxons, and Franks. § 27. Weakness of the Empire; Strength of the Germans.

§ I. The name Germany is familiar to us as that of a large tract of country in Central Europe. But history properly deals with peoples, not with lands, and, in tracing the growth, character, and achievements of a race, must follow them wherever they go. The Germans first became known to us as the most restless, migratory, and aggressive of men ; and, before they attained a permanent social organization, they had already wielded a potent influence and sown the seeds of liniilless good or evil to come in every part of Western Europe,

B

2 HISTORY OF GERMAxNY. Book I.

from Gibraltar and the British Channel to Constantinople and the Baltic Sea. Nor would an account of the race at the present day be complete if confined even to the vast empire they have just founded, hailing it as the fulfillment of the passionate desire of their long disintegrated race for unity; since at least one fourth of them, retaining all their national characteristics, and even their ancient language, are building up new Germanies beyond its borders. Nearly a million of Germans are among the most enterprising subjects of the Czar of Russia ; at least four millions of people of their blood are already planted in America, and are weekly receiving additions ; and more than nine millions of them obey the dynasty whose supremacy is the only bond of union among the discordant races of Austria and Hungary. In fact, the Germans, as a whole, have never yet attained the organic unity which is commonly implied by the word nation, but they have been almost always distracted between rival creeds and among many rival governments. But there is one important sense in which German history has a unity of its own, such as belongs to the history of no other highly civilized race or nation. Here and nowhere else do we find a vast people, whose annals lie before us from the times of their heathen barbarism to their attainment of a foremost place among enlightened nations, without such an intermixture of foreign blood at any time as to affect the identity of the race, or to force upon it a revolution in language, manners and customs, or religion. Though the most obstinately disintegrated of all races in their political institutions, yet, in the historical development of their social and intellectual life, the- Germans have been the most independent and the most vmiformly progressive of all. This fact gives to their history a unity of a higher kind than that which depends on the continuous supremacy of one dynasty, or even on the continuous development of one series of political institutions. Surely no study can be more instructive than that of the growth of a great nation, whose own internal strength has impelled it forward and sustained it for two thousand years against immeasurable hinderances, and often along the verge of utter ruin, until it has achieved the foremost place among the nations of Europe in military power and political influence, as well

Chap. I. ORIGIN OF THE GERMAN RACE. 3

as in science, art, literature, and general intelligence. Such is the growth which this work is an endeavor to sketch.

§ 2. All speculations upon the origin of the German tribes, their relations to other branches of the Arian race, and the routes by which they reached Europe, belong to the sciences of ethnology and antiquities rather than to history. Scholars are agreed that the languages of the Celtic, German, and Sclavonic tribes, with the ancient tongues of Persia, India, Greece, and Italy, have enough in common to prove that they are but modifications or branches of one original language, spoken ages ago by the common ancestors of these people. Further, the grains cultivated by all these nations, and the domesticated animals kept by them all, are known to have had their native homes in Asia. On these grounds, together with what tradition tells us of the course of rhigrations in early days, it seems certain that the fathers of the Arian races once lived in the highlands of Central Asia. There are philological reasons for believing that, before their dispersion, they were shepherds and herdsmen, possessed of horses, cattle, sheep and swine, and of our common barn-yard fowls ; fond of the chase, and accustomed to kill for food many kinds of game ; with little knowledge even of the rudiments of agriculture, gathering a few sorts of grain which grew wild around them. Above all, they had the family, formed of the man with one wife and their children. Their religious notions were as simple as their manners. The vast forces and the grand recurring phenomena of nature: the sky, the wind, storm, and lightning ; the sea, the night, the dawn — all these were referred directly to the will and power of superior beings, and honored as divine.

§ 3. But history first finds tlie Arian race in later ages, when its branches had not only wandered far away from one another and from their first home, but had formed each a distinct national or race character for itself, and attained very different degrees of civilization. It was near the Christian era when the Germans began to be known to the Romans, then the rulers of the civilized world. Herodotus speaks of a Persian tribe of " Gerraanii " in his time, but does not describe them, and there is no evidence to connect them with the European Germans of later centuries. Long befoi'e the date of authentic tradition, Avian tribes occupied the two peninsulas of Southern Europe, and there they achieved all that Greek and Roman history reports to us. Much later the Celts moved westward ; and after the fifth century before Christ were active as nomadic plunderers, invading Italy and the rich provinces on the Danube. But they had no political organization, and constantly quarreled among themselves. In the second century before Christ they were crushed by the Romans and the Germans. Only remnants of the race now cling to the rocks of the Atlantic coast, in Brittany, Wales, and Ireland.

§ 4. The Germans were doubtless the last of the Arian races to reach Western Europe. They probably came across the vast region which is now Russia, and took possession first of Scandinavia' and of the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea; then entered Germany from the northeast, and gradually drove before them the Celts, who throughout the great historic period of Greece had been supreme in Central Europe. The first recorded notice of any of the German tribes is that of the Teutons and Guthons on the Baltic coast, where they were visited by Pytheas of Massilia, in the time of Alexander the Great. It is curious that the ancient historians did not believe the reports of Pytheas. Polybius thinks it impossible that he coxald ever have made the voyages he describes, and Strabo expressly and often calls him a liar. But time has shown that many of his accounts are too accurate not to have been founded on personal observation. Thus it is in the latter part of the fourth century before Christ that we first hear of Germans in Europe. But within a few generations afterward they had not only occupied the whole of Germany, but had entirely forgotten their ancient migrations. The Germans, when the Romans became acquainted with them, regarded themselves as children of heroes who had been born of the gods upon the soil they tilled. There were at that time at least forty independent tribes of them, with no political bond of union among them. But they had a well-marked national physiognomy ; their language, their religion, and their customs in administering justice were the same; and they preserved a vague tradition of their common descent from one general father, Tuisco, whose tliree grandsons, sons of " Mannus," had

Chap. I. THE GERMANS INVADE EUROPE. 6

given their names to the three great divisions of the race, the Istaevones, the Ingaevones, and the Hermiones. These tliree principal stems correspond roughly to the Franks, to the Saxons and Lombards, and to the Allemanni and Swabians of later times ; but seem not to include the Thuringians, Bavarians, Burgundians, and some smaller tribes. The national name " German," given to the whole race by Csesar and Tacitus, means " shouters in battle," and is parallel to Homer's favorite epithet of Menelaus, "good at the war-cry." The name "Deutsche," by which the Germans, since the ninth century, have called themselves and their language, is probably derived from that of their divine ancestor, Tuisco.

§ 5. After the end of the Punic Wars, the Romans were masters of the countries upon the Mediterranean Sea; that is, of the then known world. As they set out from the Alps, the wall that shut in Italy, and went westward and northward to subdue the Celts, they unexpectedly fell in with the Germans, who were engaged in the same work. The first German tribe they met was the Cimbri (i. e., warriors, cliampions, or, as the Romans interpreted it, robbers). It is uncertain whence they came; but at that time (b.c. 113) they were in motion, pressing hard upon the Scordisci, a Celtic tribe dwelling in Noricum, east of the Alps, and were striving to subdue or to break through them. This was the first time the Romans saw that wonderful phenomenon, a migrating nation — a whole vast people, who have taken up their goods, and abandoned their country, to go out into the wide world in search of better homes. The Celts now called for help on Papirius Carbo, the Roman consul, who thought this new enemy too strong to fight with any arms but treachery. lie pretended friendship for the Cimbri, and then suddenly fell upon them at night. But they rallied with full vigor and self-possession, and utterly defeated him at Noreja (now Klagenfurth, in Carinthia). They then advanced Avestward along the Alps, entered Gaul, defeated four more consular armies (b.c. 109-105), laid waste the whole country from the Rhone to the Pyrenees, and finally invaded Spain, where, however, they were successfully resisted. The " Cimbrian panic " went before them, and Rome shook with terror at their name, as of old at that of Brennus or Hannibal. For all that was told of them was strange and

6 HISTORY OF GERMANY. Book 1.

fearful. Their tense and active frames, of giant size, witli their fair locks — boys with the hair of old men, the Italians said — with bold blue eyes, and unequaled strength, were a new wonder of the world. They wore brazen mail and gleaming white shields, and helmets shaped like the heads of unknown beasts of prey, with horribly distended jaws. For a missile, they carried a double-pointed spear; but in a hand-to-hand fight they used long, heavy swords,* Even the women seemed to be warriors ; at least they followed the men into the field with shouts of encouragement. Some of them, in white linen, officiated as priestesses, cutting the throats of prisoners of war over a brass vessel, and finding portents in the flowing blood. Tui'ning back again from the Pyrenees toward the north, these Cimbri joined the Teutons, another German tribe, then spreading westward across the lower part of the Rhine. The united tiibes now demanded from the Romans land on which to settle, but the Romans really had none to give. Unable to stay longer in Gaul, which they had laid waste, the tribes, now too numerous to move together, parted again, but undertook by a concerted plan to make a . simultaneous attack on Italy. The Teutons preferred to follow the i-oad along the coast, entering Italy south of the Maritime Alps, while the Cimbri chose the way by the passes of the Eastern Alps. It was still land that they wanted — land in which to settle, and to establish permanent homes. They did not seek booty; they avoided the most thickly settled and the richest parts of Italy ; they even destroyed the horses and armor of the men they slew in battle. Their aim was to find a country in which they and their herds and flocks could live in plenty; but without a thought of "glory" or of empire,

§ 6. Cains Marius, the son of the day-laborer of Arpinum, the conqueror of Jugurtha, was the only fit man Rome could find to meet such a danger. He was now consul for the fourth time, and had taken up his position near Aries, in the province of Gaul, to guard the main entrance into Italy. By years of exercise and service, he had accustomed his troops to the old Roman discipline, and had steeled them against panic before the barbarians. Now that the Teutons undertook * Plutarch's Life of Marias.

Chap. I. WARS WITH ROME. 7

to make their way to Rome, passing by his well-guarded camp, he pursued them, and fell on them with such vigor, at the warm springs called Aquse Sextiie (now Aix, near Marseilles), that their whole host of two hundred thousand was destroyed (December, b.c. 102). He then, in the fifth year of his consulship, betook himself to Italy. The Cimbri meanwhile made an irruption by the valley of the Etsch, defeated the consul Marcellus, and had already spent a year in the plains north of the Po before Marius reached them, with an increased Roman army. In a bloody battle at Vercellae he destroyed their forces, which were drawn up against him in a square, with a side of three miles and a half (July 30, b.c. 101). In their last desperate struggles, the German women showed the same invincible spirit and passion for liberty as the men. At Aquae Sextise they offered to surrender to the Romans, if permitted to become the slaves of the vestal virgins ; but when this was refused, they resisted to the last, and then, in despair, th^y slew their children and themselves. The Romans long remembered their terrible foe, and the countrymen of Marius were not far wrong in hailing him, after these victories, as " the third founder of Rome."

§ 7. During these twelve years of war the Romans estimated that half a million of the Germans had been destroyed by them ; yet, in the great and general movement of the German race to the westward, the Cimbri and the Teutons were but the bold pioneers whom new hordes weit- soon to follow. More than forty years, indeed, were now spent by the Roman Republic in party contentions and civil wars before its warriors again met the Germans on the soil of Gaul, the land they both claimed. Meanwhile the Germans pressed steadily forward toward the Rhine, and across it. They encroached on the Ilelvetii, a Celtic tribe, in the Alpine territory, and the Lower Rhine was no longer a barrier to them. South of it, the fruitful Belgian races, formed by a mixture of Germans and Celts, occupied the country as far as the Seine and the Marne. These Avandering hordes of Germans, known as Suevi (wanderers), forced their way over the Rhine farther to the south, and entered Gaul ; not suddenly, indeed, but in successive bodies, until their number increased there from 15,000 (b.c. 59) to 120,000 men (b.c. 57). At their head was Ariovistus, a warrior king, who, once invited into the rich, attractive land by factions arnong its own inhabitants, now aimed at its complete conquest.

§ 8. This was the situation at the time (b.c. 58) whenCaius Julius Cffisar went to Gaul to seek conquest, fame, and the future mastery of the whole empire of Rome. The^dui, the people next threatened by the Germans, invoked his protection against Ariovistus. With true Roman pride, Caesar, resolved that the Germans should not gradually accustom themselves to cross the Rhine, and perhaps renew the danger which Italy had incurred from the Cimbri, summoned the German commander to appear before him as his judge. With pride equal to Caesar's, Ariovistus replied that " when he needed Caesar he would go to Caesar ; but meanwhile Caesar might come to him : and what business had Caesar or Rome in his part of Gaul which he had conquered in war." No such language had been addressed to a Roman consul for centuries. The only appeal was to arms. But, like Marius, Caesar had need of all his cunning and presence of mind to induce his troops to light these terrible Germans, whose very bearing and look, the Gauls insisted, were insupportable in battle. It was rather by a surprise than by victory in the open field that Caesar then overcame Ariovistus on the banks of the Little Doller, in Upper Alsace, and drove the Suevi down the 111 and across the Rhine. But the Triboci, the Nemetes, and the Vangiovi, left behind by the Suevi, accepted Ca3sar's moderate terms; and he assigned them a home on the left bank of the Rhine, between that river and the Vosges Mountains, that they might be a barrier of Rome against their countrymen.

§ 9. During the next eight years (b.c. 58-50) the Gauls and Belgians were subdued, and thus all the other German tribes which had crossed the Lower Rhine became subject to Rome ; as did the Ubii, who set up their principal place of worship (ara Ubiorum) where Cologne now stands. The Nervii were overcome in a hard-fought battle, one of Caesar's most ftxmous achievements. The Tenchteri and Usipetes, who had, in part, been driven across the Rhine by the Suevi, were destroyed by Caesar with Roman faithlessness. A mere remnant of them survived, and afterward occupied the right bank of the

Chap. I. C^SAR DESCRIBES THE GERMANS. 9

Rhine from the Lahn to the Yssel. These victories encouraged Caesar twice to bridge the Rhine (b.c. 55 and 58), and he was thus the first Roman captain to cross that lordly river. But he ventured no farther into the wooded and to him inhospitable region beyond. Gaul had submitted ; but for a long time the Rhine remained the acknowledged boundary between the Roman possessions and the free Germans.

§ 10. Caesar's own writings give the earliest trustworthy account of the land and its inhabitants. He was the first to distinguish the Germans from the Celts. He praises their warlike strength, their endurance, their hospitality, and their pure morals. Of the interior of their land, he describes the great " Hercynian forest," stretching indefinitely eastward from the Upper Rhine toward Bohemia; and the Bacenis forest, including the Hartz Mountains and the territory between them and the Rivers Rhine and Main. He tells of wonderful and fabulous wild beasts which lived in this Avilderness. But his descriptions of the government and social life of the people apply chiefly to the Suevi, with whom his intercourse was most direct. These tribes were still unsettled, and individual ownership of the soil was unknown to them ; the whole of the land they occupied being the property of the community. It was cultivated a part at a time, the rest lying fallow. Half of the men took their turn at the work, while the rest went forth for war and conquest. They thought it both honorable and safe to lay waste on all sides a broad tract of the country bordering on them. But besides such tribes as these, there were doubtless already others in the north and northwest of Germany which lived a settled and widely diflferent life ; yet the mass of the German tribes in Caesar's time were probably in a transition state, between the wild and wanton career of the migrating Teutons and Cimbri, and the fixed homes and settled customs attained by their posterity.

§ 11. The Romans soon came into contact with the inhabitants of the interior of Germany. Julius Caesar fell by the assassin's dagger, and once more civil war divided the Roman world. Finally Octavius Caesar, now called Augustus, reaped the harvest sown by his uncle, obtained a sovereignty without a rival, and founded the empire. This huge mon-

10 HlfeTOKY OF GERMANY. Book L

archy began to set its provinces in order, and to secure its boundaries. The general result of the wars with the Germans was that Rome had control of all the territories west of the Rhine, or south of the Danube. The Germans had settled along the left bank of the Rhine from Upper Alsace to the sea, and this strip .of land, pompously called Roman Germany, was incorporated into the province of Gaul. It was divided by the Moselle into Upper and Lower Germany. The country between the mouths of the Rhine, called the Island of the Batavians, was also subject to the Empire. South of the Danube were the three provinces Rhsetia (including Vindelicia), Noricum, and Pannonia, inhabited by Celtic tribes, which had been subdued by Drusus and Tiberius, step-sons of Augustus. But nearly all the vast territory east of the Rhine and north of the Danube was free, and this was known as " Germania Magna," or " Barbara." The Romans fortified both rivers to protect their provinces ; and these military works were the origin of Bingen, Bonn and Neuss on the Rhine, and of Regensburg (Ratisbon) on the Danube. Only the Tenchteri and Usipetes, on the east bank of the Rhine, and the Ubii, who occupied both banks, obeyed the Romans. The chief place of the Ubii was made a Roman colony, and received the name " Colonia Claudia Agrippina," in honor of Agrippina, Nero's mother. It became the capital of Lower Germany, and is still called Cologne. All the Germans east of these were free. The Frisii held the sea-coast from the Rhine to the Eras, and the Chauci (" strong and upright men, of giant stature," the Romans call them) from the Ems eastward. The Bructeri and the Marsi occupied the lowlands on the Lippe, and thence to the sources of the Ems. South of them came the Sigambri, a tribe kindred to the Marsi, in the region where the Rivers Ruhr, Sieg, and Eder take their rise, and extending to the Rhine. East of these, in the country now known as Hesse, were the obstinate and warlike Chatti — perhaps the very Suevi of Ariovistus, now become a settled people. The Angrivarii dwelt in the flat country between the Weser and the Aller; and southeast of them, reaching from the Weser to the east side of the Hartz Mountains, were the Cherusci, then the mightiest tribe of all. Beyond these, in the Thuringian forest and onward to the

Chap. I. CAMPAIGNS OF DRUSUS. 11