Spain

Introduction

SPAIN has held, for two thousand years, an interesting and important position among the states of Europe. She is of Europe and she is not. For the Pyrenees separate her so far from the continent, that her people have always had characteristics of their own, more deeply stamped upon them than those of any other European nation. Yet the Pyrenees are not impassable, and the Mediterranean is easily traversed. So that Spain has been no separated Japan, but she has had to give and take in the international courtesies, exchanges, and conflicts of the western world. There have been times when the monarchs of Spain gave the law to Europe. Even the Greek emperor once owed his crown to the succor of Catalonia. There have been times, again, when none have been so poor as to render to Spain any reverence. There are spots in Spain where a year may pass without a drop of rain. But within a few hundred miles the rainfall of the same year is all that is needed for the most successful agriculture, and these regions are rich and beautiful, while the others are arid deserts. The history of Spain shows contrasts which are as strong. It is hard to believe that we are reading of the same nation, when we follow the history of the great expeditions of discovery and war by which she

IV THE STORY OF SPAIN.

traversed and conquered two hemispheres ; and when, within a few generations after, we drag through the wretched annals of petty court intrigues, which are all that is left of the story of the descendants of Ferdinand and Isabella.

To write every detail of such a history for English readers, would literally not be worth the ink and the paper which it would cost. Of what is forgotten in it, much is well forgotten, and no writer need attempt to raise it from its grave. But we have thought that the reader of to-day ought to know what are the successive steps by which the Iberia, which was almost a fabled country to the Romans of the time of the Consuls, has become the Spain of to-day, with the proud record of Spain in literature, in adventure, in discovery, in statesmanship, and in war. The book which the reader holds undertakes to show these important steps. We pass, intentionally and without a word, much of the detail of long periods, that we may have the more space and chance to describe the essential movements of history, on which the real fortunes of Spain have depended, and, in many instances, the fortunes of the world. What is left out is by no means without interest, and we do not pretend that it is without importance. We shall be glad, indeed, if in the story as we tell it, the reader shall be tempted to search for himself, in those narratives in different languages, by which he can fill out our intentional omissions.

It might probably be said that no country has furnished more fascinating subjects for literature and

INTRODUCTION. V

art than Spain. The mere contrasts of which we have spoken are such as dramatists and poets delight in ; and one might almost say that the rare variety which fascinates the traveller in Spain, and the conflicts and rivalries of the five or six nations which make up the Spanish people, have given a sort of stimulus, especially to romance, which we should hardly expect where nature and life are more commonplace. From the first century, when Martial, Lucan, the Senecas, and Quintilian, all Spaniards by birth, were leaders in the literary circles of Rome, down to our days when Mr. Longfellow writes " The Spanish Student," and George Eliot " The Spanish Gipsy," the authors of every western nation have felt the Spanish fascination. The origin of modern romance might be fairly ascribed to Amadis of Gaul. It would be well indeed if some of the nineteenthcentury romancers would imitate the directness of its narrative and the simplicity of its description. Though it is not to be accounted a Spanish romance originally, it owes all its early reputation to Spain ; the readers of Spain knowing how to give full sympathy to the work of Lobeira, who is indeed one of their own brothers, writing in the neighboring country of Portugal and in its kindred tongue.

Within the last three months it has been said, on good authority, that among leaders of our own colored races at the South, there are traditions of the times when Islam held possession of Granada, and a vague feeling that, in the future, Africa and Africans shall regain their lost empire in Spain. This is certain, that Islam has never forgotten those

VI THE STORY OF SPAIN.

glorious centuries when Cordova and the sister cities were at the head of the civilization of the world. It is not, therefore, the literature of Europe or America only which looks fondly for its subjects to Spain, but we follow her legends and her truer histories as well in the Eastern writers, so long as the East had any literature.

It has been, therefore, a part of our plan in following the Story of Spain, to refer, from chapter to chapter, to such illustrations from the writings of various authors of different countries, as might interest young readers and tempt them to follow, not only the history of Spain in its chronological order, but the series of writings which in romance, in poetry, and in other literature we owe to her suggestions.

Contents

INTRODUCTION.

I. Page

The necklace of the queen, 3 — Iberians on the peninsula, 4 — Thirty-seven monkeys at Gibraltar, 4 — Celts from Asia migrate from the West, 5 — Celts, Iberians, and Celtiberians, 5 — Their arms, their food, their dress, 6 — Names of the different tribes, 8 — Asturians, 8 — Cantabrians, 9 — Vascones or Basques, 9 — Basque language, or Esquera, 10 — Galicians, 11 — Lusitania, and the religion of the Druids, 12 — Characteristics of these Northern tribes, 12 — Early races of Southern Spain, 14 — Phoenicians, tempted by the wealth of the country, 16— The alphabet of the Phoenicians, 17 — Difference between tradition and written history, 17,

II

First acquaintance of Spain with the rest of the world, 19 — The ships of Tarshish, 19 — Foothold for the Carthaginians, 20 — Carthage steadily gaining power, 20 — Hannibal's scheme of subduing the Spaniards, 21 — Hamilcar had built New Carthage, 21 — The boy Hannibal and his oath, 21 — War against Saguntum, 22 — The Saguntines resist bravely, 24 — But, left to their fate, surrender, 25 — Result, described by Livy, 26 — Carthaginian tinge in the blood of Spain, 27 — Its mark on literature, 2S — Poem of Zamora, 29.

vill CONTENTS.

Ill

PAGE.

Rome attracted toward Spain, 30 — Her conquests make of it a Roman province, 30 — Scipio Africanus, the first commanding figure, 32 — Publius Scipio appointed general, 33 — His wise policy with the Spaniards, 33 — He blockades New Carthage, 34— Surprise of Mago, the Carthaginian general, 34 — Success of the attack, 34 — Wealth of the city, brought to Scipio, 35 — He releases the hostages, 36 — Carthaginians expelled from Spain, 37 — Noble character of Publius Scipio, 37 — Cato the elder at Jaca, 38 — Assimilation of Romans and Spaniards, 38 — Latin language prevails, 38 — Camilius Scipio takes control of the province, 40 — Fall of Numantia, 40.

IV

His picturesque story told by Plutarch, 44 — A soldier of ability, 44 — His voyage toward the Islands of the Blest, 45 — Lands in Mauritania, 46 — Received the white hind, 46 — He is regarded as divine in Lusitania, 47 — Helps the Spaniards to resist Rome, 47 — Founds a university at Osca, 47 — Devotion of his troops, 48 — His achievement against the Characitanians, 49 — Recognized master of a large part of Spain, 52 — Not encouraged by Sylla ; an army despatched to crush, him, 52 — Treaty with Mithridates, 52 — Conspiracy against Sertorius ; close of the episode, 53 — Corneille's tragedy, 53.

V. Julius Caesar in Spain .... 54-69

Death of Sertorius, 54 — Followed by Pompey, 54 — Caesar and Pompey at Munda, 55 — Position of the armies, 56 — The Waterloo of the conflict, 56 — Army of Pompey broken, 57 — Victory of Caesar celebrated by a triumph, 57 — Augustus Caesar brings peace into Spain, 5S — Five cities of Spain established, 60 — Roman customs adopted, 61 — Historians and poets born in Spain, 62 — Martial's ode, 63 — Ode by Prudentius, 64 — ILs long poem, Peristephanior, 64 — Roman impress upon Spanish life, 67 — On language, 68.

CONTENTS. IX

VI. Page

Ataulphus — Evaric 73—91

Northern invaders in Southern Europe, 73 — Change the destinies of Spain, 73 — Establishment of a Gothic dynasty, 73 — Southern France, its military base, 74 — Advance cf its armies to the Guadalquivir, 74 — Vigor infused into the Roman province, 75 — Southern France overrun, and Rome powerless, besieged by Alaric, 76 — Goths established in Toulouse, 77 — Becoming civilized, 77 — Ataulphus their king, 77 ; in love with Placidia, 78 — Receives her as his wife from Honorius, 7S — Court of Ataulphus at Barcelona, 79 — Trouble with his soldiers, 80 — assassinated by a dwarf, 80 — Wallia chosen king, 81 — Conditions of peace with Romans, 82 — Hostilities against the barbarians, 84 — Theodoric successor to Wallia, 84 — Invasion of the Huns, 84 — Attila, the Scourge of God, 85 — Conquered, 85 — His death, 86 — Theodoric the Visigoth, 86 — Evaric, king at Toulouse, 87 — The founder of the Gothic kingdom in Spain, 87 — Goths grown to be cultivated people, 8S — Gothic language, 8S — Evaric's death at Aries, 89 — Government of the Visigoths, 90 — Inauguration of their king, 91.

VII

Origin of the Goths, 92 — Ulfilas converts them to the Christian religion and reduces their language to writing, 93 — Their respect for the priests, 94 — Their form of religion called Arianism, 95 — Confronted with the dogmas of the Church, 96 — Conflict between Arians and Catholics, 98 — Not really a conflict as to the divine realities, 99 — Most valuable gift of Arianism to Spain, 100 — Muzarabic ritual, 100 — Traces of the Gothic language, 101 — Sermon on the Mount in four languages, 102 — Resemblance of English and Spanish languages, 103 — Romance authors of Spain, 104— Influence of Spanish literature, 105.

X CONTENTS.

VIII. Page

Leovigild an Arian, 106 — His son, Erminigild, married to a princess of France, 107 — Her mother a Gothic princess, 108 — Married in France, no — Ingunda a Catholic, ill — Quarrels with her step-mother, 112 — Erminigild becomes Catholic, [13 — Deeply offending his father, 114 — Rebels against Leovigild, 115 — Punished and exiled to Valencia, 116 — Thrown into prison, 117 — Obstinate in his faith, 118 — Executed by his father's order, 119 — Death of Leovigild, 12c — Recared converted from Arianism, 121 — His moderate measures, 122 — Catholic faith declared the religion of the state, 123 — Death of Recared, 124.

IX. Toledo — Wamba 125-138

Toledo the capital of the Visigothic kings, 125 — Reigning there for several centuries, 126 — Catholic religion firmly established, 126 — Wamba unwillingly chosen king, 127 — An energetic sovereign, 128 — His troops suppress a rebellion in Gothic Gaul, 129 — Duke Paul its author, 130 — Rebels consigned to prison, 131 — Gothic Gaul pacified, 132 — Wamba persecutes the Jews, 133 — Defends the court from Saracens, 134 — His trance, by which he was made a monk, 135 — Ervigius reigns, 136 — Presence of the Goths in Toledo, 137 — Spirit of Roderick, 138.

X. Roderick, the Last of the Goths . . 139-151

Roderick assumes the rule of Spain, 139 — Count Julian, the commander of the Spanish army in Africa, 140 — Has defeated Musa, 141 — Betrays to him the strongholds of the Goths, 141 — Symbols of the pillars of Hercules, 142 — Legend of Roderick's visit to the cave of Hercules, 143 — Roderick learns of the invasion of Tarik, 145 — Rallies his forces, 146 — Battle of the Guadalete lost to the Goths, 146 — Roderick drowned — Tarik advances to Toledo, 148 — Spain reduced to a Mohammedan province, 149 — "Roderick, the Last of the Goths," by Southey, 150.

CONTENTS, XI

XI. Page

The Caliphate of Cordova . . . 155-17C

Mohammed, the founder of Islamism, 155 — The triumphs of its armies, checked at Tours, 156 — Moslems content themselves with Spain, 157 — Abderahman, prince of the Omeyyades, 158 — Entertained by Bedouins, 160 — Offered sovereignty, 161 — Enters Spain, 162 — Resisted by Yussef, but successful, 163 — Spain governed by the Omeyyades, 164 — Their munificence, 165 — The mosque of Cordova, 166 — Cordova, centre of learning, 168 — Almanza, the regent, 169 — War with Christians, 169 — End of the Caliphate of the West, 170.

XII. The Song of Roland . . . 171-186

Charlemagne at Saragossa, 171 — Attacked in the Pyrenees by Basques, 172 — Battle of Roncesvalles, 173 — Divergence between history and legend, 173 — Roland and Olivier, 174 — journey of Ganelon, 175 — His treachery, 176 — The rear of the army entrusted to Roland, 177 — Approach of the Saracens, 178 — Fearful struggle, 179 — Archbishop Turpin, 180 — Roland sounds his horn, 181 — Too late, 182 — Death of Olivier, 183 — The emperor hears the horn, 184 — Death of Roland,. 185.

XIII

Christians regain some power, 187 — Almoravides called to protect the Moslems, 188 — Abdallah their leader, 189 — Yussef ben Taxfin, 190 — Takes possession of the kingdom, 191 — And leads the armies to Spain, 192 — Overcomes the petty princes of Andalusia, 193 — Dies at Morocco, 194 — Short duration of the Almoravides, 195 — Mohammed the son of the lamp-lighter, 196 — Becomes Mahdi, 197 — Leader of the Almohades, or Unitarians, 198 — His successor, Abdelmumen, victorious in Africa, 199 — Becomes sovereign of all Mohammedan Spain, 200 — Crusade of Christians, 200 — Battle of Navas de Tolosa, 201.

Xll CONTENTS.

XIV. Page

Story of the Abencerrages . . . 203-212

Abencerrages, a legendary family, 203 — Their rivals, the Zegris, 204 — Intense jealousies, 205 — Aixa, Tepi princess, bride of the king of Grenada, 206 — Wedding at the Moorish court, 207 — Splendors of the tribes, 20S — Competition in games, 209 — Abenhamet the flower of the Abencerrages, 210 — Zorai'de, his beloved, married to the royal prince, 210 — Interview discovered, 211 — Abencerrages ordered to the palace, 211 — Slaughtered in the Court of Lions, 212.

XV. The Fall of Granada .... 213-228

Mohammed ben Alhamar, 2I3 — Fortifies the kingdom of Grenada, 214 — Intercourse of Christians and Moors, 215 — Moors divided, and Christians united, 216 — Treachery in the Alhambra, 217 — End of the romantic period, 219 — Isabella determined to destroy the Moors, 220 — Boabdil the last prince of Grenada, 221 — Situation of the Alhambra, 222 — Zahara and Alhama, 223 — The mother of Boabdil, 224 — Grenada invested, capitulates, 225 — Boabdil surrenders the keys, 226 — '' El ultimo sospiro del moro," 227 — Moors dreaming of Granada, 228.

XVI. Pelayo . 231-247

Goths after their defeat. 231 — Retreat to the mountains, 232 — Pelayo the head of a little kingdom, 233 — Alfonso el Casto, 234 — Legend of Bernardo del Carpio, 235 — His father imprisoned, 236 — Treachery of the king, 237 — Catholic faith of the early Goths, 238 — Ramiro visited by Santiago, 239 — Santiago at Clavigo, 240 — Other legends of the saint, 241 — Sancho the fat, 243 — Counts of Castile, 244 — Fernan Gonzalez, 245 — Miracle of the grotio, 2-j6 — Successes of the Christians, 247.

CONTENTS. Xlll

XVII. Page

Warfare between Mussulmans and Christians, 248 — The Cid, a hero coolly doubted by critics, 249 — Absolute veracity of the chronicle for us not important, 250 — Single story in his life, 251 — Boldness in presence of King Alfonso, 252 — Kindness of the monarch, 253 — Banished from Leon and Castile, 254 — Attacks the Moors and becomes governor of Valencia, 256 — Resists King Yussef, 257 — Twenty-nine Moorish kings slain, 258 — Courage of the Cid, 259 — His death, 260 — Translations of the chronicle and poem, 261.

XVIII

Seville, city of the perfect climate, 262 — Won for the Christians by Ferdinand III., 264 — This king a saint, 265 — His son, Alfonso the Learned, 266 — His claim to be Emperor of Germany, 268 — Ferdinand de la Cerda, 268 — Quarrels about the succession, 269— Sancho proclaimed king, 270 — Pedro the Cruel adorns the Alcazar, 271 — Loves Maria de Padilla, 272 — 111 treats his bride, Blanche of Bourbon, 273 — Kills his brother Fadrique, 2 74 — Rouses the hostility of the French, 276 — Flees before Henry at Trastamara, 277 — Gains the battle of Navarrete, 278 — Slain by his brother, 279 — Henry of Trastamara, 280.

XIX

Occupies the northeast of Spain, 281 — Successes in war, 282 — John of Arragon, 283 — Carlos, Prince of Viana, 284 — Joan Henriques, the disagreeable step-mother, 285 — Carlos in Naples, 2S6 — Urged to return, 287 — refused the title of heir-apparent, 288 — Arrested, 289 — Acknowledged by the insistance of the Catalans ; death of the Prince of Viana, 289 — Blanche, his sister, persecuted by Joan, 291 — Shut up at Orthes, and poisoned, 292 — Misfortunes of King John, 294 — Death of Joanna, 295 — Renewed courage of the old king, 296 — Enters Barcelona on a white charger, 297.

XIV CONTENTS.

XX. Page

Maria of Castile and Arragon, 298 — Isabella's offers of marriage, 299 — Her attractions, 300 — Affianced to Ferdinand, 301 — Meeting with her betrothed, 302 — The marriage, 304 — Proclaimed queen at Segovia, 305 — Isabella strengthens the kingdom, 306 — Head-quarters at Seville, 507 — Soul of the war against Grenada, 308 — Receives Columbus, 310 — Assumes his undertaking, 311 — Return of Columbus, 312 — Children of Ferdinand and Isabella, 314 — The Princess Joanna, 315 — Illness of the queen, 316 — Her death, 317 — Buried in the cathedral at Grenada, 318 — Effigies on the tomb, 319 — The royal standard, 320.

XXL

Charles I. of Spain — Charles V. of Germany ...... 321-340

Power of Charles in Europe, 321 — Tried by prosperity, 322 — His endless wars, 324 — Grandson of Isabella, 325 — Born at Ghent, 326 — Cardinal Ximenes regent, 327 — Joanna, mother of Charles, insane, 328 — Clemency of Charles, 329 — Wars with Francis I., 330 — Bravery of Spanish troops, Moorish piracy, 331 — Siege of Pampeluna, 332 — Loyola, 333 — Society of Jesus, 334 — Charles retires to Trieste, 335 — His conquests at home, 336 — Extent of his kingdom, 337 Reputation of Spaniards for cruelty, 339 — Courage, patience, and foresight of Spain, 340.

XXII

Decline of the country, 343 — Possessions of Philip II., Poem of Numantia, 345 — Don Quixote, 346 — Marriages of Philip II., 347 — Portrait by Titian, 34S — " Bloody" Mary, 348 — Double marriage at the court of France, 349 — Revolt of the Moriscos, 350 — Their contempt for Christian forms,

CONTENTS. xv

351 — Insurrection put down, 352 — Expelled by Philip III., 353 — Treasures of the Moors, 353 — Another double marriage, 354 — Philip III.'s death, 355 — Philip IV., 356 — End of the real Spanish line of sovereigns, 357.

XXIII

Charles II. a weak descendant of the emperor, 358 — Contemporary of Charles II. of England, 359 — Settlements in America, 360 — War of the Spanish Succession, 361 — Claimapts to the throne, 362 — Philip V. proclaimed, 363 — Treaty of Utrecht, 365 — Blow to the Jesuits, 366 — United States of America, 368 — Charles III., 370 — Manuel Godoy, 371

XXIV

Spain betrayed by Ferdinand, 372 — Battle of Trafalgar, 373 — French and Spanish fleets, 374 — Death of Nelson, 375 — Villeneuve a prisoner, 376 — Joseph Bonaparte usurps the Spanish crown, 377 — Wellesley at Salamanca ; Wellington at Victoria, 378 — Fall of Napoleon, 378.

XXV. The Nineteenth Century . . . 381 — 396

Shelley's ode to the Spaniards, 381 — Return of Ferdinand VII., 382 — Rebellion of the American colonies, 384 — Carlist plots, 385 — Isabella, heiress to the throne, 386 — Her cause that of liberalism, 387 — wretched failure of her life, 388 — Protected by Espartero, 389 — Declared queen, 390 — Deposed, 391 — Amadeo made king ; abdicates, 392 — Alfonso XII., 393 — His death, 394 — Birth of a prince, 395 — Dirge of Larra, 395.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

GATE OF THE COURT OF ORANGES, SEVILLE DRAL

mountain gorge in the asturias

monument of the druids

roman amphitheatre at murviedro

roman bridge at salamanca

roman bridge at cuenca

roman remains at merida .

julius caesar

Caesar's method of attack .

roman aqueduct, segovia .

roman temple at vienne

roman gateway at treves .

TOLEDO

THE WINDING PASS .

PUERTA DEL SOL, TOLEDO GIBRALTAR ....

MOORISH TOWER, TOLEDO MOORISH MILLS, CORDOVA MOSQUE AT CORDOVA THE GATE OF JUSTICE, ALHAMBRA VIEW OF THE ALHAMBRA FOUNTAIN OF THE LIONS PUERTA DI SANTA M^ STREET IN VALENCIA

CATHE-

Froniispiece 7

97 108

XV1U

TORRE DEL ORO, SEVILLE . . . < . . 26 1

GALLERY OF PEDRO I., SEVILLE .... 263

DIE GIRALDA . 267

DOOR IN THE ALCAZAR 272

AVIGORNAGNA, BILBAO 275

SARAGOSSA . . 289

CHATEAU DE BELLEGARDE 293

PORTRAIT OF ISABELLA ...... 299

CHURCH OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES . . . 303

PORTRAIT OF COLUMBUS ...... 309

DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS 311

COLUMBUS ON THE DECK OF HIS SHIP ^ . . . 313

HALL OF THE TWO SISTERS, ALHAMBRA . . . 317

TOMB OF FERDINAND AND ISABELLA . . . 319

CHARLES THE FIFTH IN HIS THIRTY-FIRST YEAR . 323

BATTLE OF PAVIA 2iZZ

VALLADOLID 343

BULL AND MATADOR, MADRID . . . . 35 1

MALAGA 359

CLOISTERS, TOLEDO ifiZ

SAN SEBASTIAN ....... 367

THE PASS OF PANCORBO 369

LEANING TOWER, SARAGOSSA 373

MADRID, GENERAL VIEW 387

CASTLES IN SPAIN.

H. W. Longfellow.

How much of my young heart, O Spain

Went out to thee in days of yore ! What dreams romantic filled my brain And summoned back to life again The Paladins of Charlemagne, The Cid Campeador ?

And shapes more shadowy than these. In the dim twilight half revealed, Phoenician galleys on the seas, The Roman camps like hives of bees, The Goth uplifting from his knees Pelayo on his shield.

Yet something sombre and severe

O'er the enchanted landscape reigned

A terror in the atmosphere

As if King Philip listened near,

Or Torqueinada the austere,

His ghostly sway maintained.

Dispelled the sadness and the gloom ; There Cadiz by the seaside lies, And Seville's orange orchards rise, Making the land a paradise

Of beauty and of bloom.

THE STORY OF SPAIN.

There Cordova is hidden among

The palm, the olive, and the vine ; Gem of the South, by poets sung, And in whose mosque Almansor hung As lamps the bells that once had rung At Campostella's shrine.

But over all the rest supreme,

The star of stars, the cynosure,

The artist's and the poet's theme,

The young man's vision, the old man's dream. ;

Granada by its winding stream, The city of the Moor.

And there the Alhambra still recalls

Aladdin's palace of delight : Allah il Allah through its halls Whispers the fountain as it falls. The Darro darts beneath its walls,

The hills with snow are white.

The Vega cleft by the Xenil,

The fascination and allure Of the sweet landscape chains the will, The traveller lingers on the hill, His parted lips are breathing still

The last sigh of the Moor.

How like a ruin overgrown

With flowers that hide the rents of time Stands now the Past that I have known, Castles of Spain not built of stone, But of white summer clouds and bl&wp

Into this little mist of rhyme.

Part I

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Chapter I. Early Traditions

A Castilian geographer, proud of his country, made a map of Europe representing a woman, with Spain for her head, the Pyrenees for her necklace, the Alps for her girdle. One arm was stretched out for Italy, while her feet ran off into Russia and Turkey.

The necklace of the queen forms a line of separation between her head and her body, sometimes a convenience, sometimes an obstacle to her welfare. The Pyrenees are mountains of secondary importance, compared with the Alps, but they make a strong barrier between the Spanish peninsula and the rest of Europe. On the northern or French side the descent from the summits is gradual, while on the Spanish side the valleys seem hollowed out like enormous chasms, with deep precipices and perpendicular cliffs thousands of feet high. The northern slope, exposed to the Atlantic, partakes of the European climate ; the southern, influenced by Mediterranean breezes, is more like Africa than Europe.

On this peninsula, shut off from the rest of Europe by such a sharp mountain chain, long, long ago, before books were written, before people troubled themselves to make histories, there lived men called Iberians. No one can tell how they came to be living in this sunny southern corner of the continent. Probably they came across from Africa, and perhaps, when they did so, there was dry land for them to cross upon, where the narrow Straits of Gibraltar now lead the waters of the Atlantic Ocean to join those of the Mediterranean Sea. Geologists think there may once have been an -isthmus at the narrowest point, at Tarifa, where the distance from one continent to the other is now but twelve miles, over which it would be easy to cross. There is a tradition of a canal being cut, with a bridge built over it by the Phoenicians. The waters of the Atlantic rushed in and widened more and more the opening, making Europe and Africa separate continents.

Thirty-seven monkeys still hold their place in the woods and among the crags of the headlands of Gibraltar. In the days of peace there is no duty more carefully impressed on the garrison than the watch over these survivors of another civilization, and in the daily report of the sentries they include the number of monkeys who have appeared. Many of the soldiers, who have watched these gentry from another country and time, will tell the traveller that there is now a subterranean passage from Europe to Africa, and that the monkeys still know the way.

This is certain, that in the early days of history

Iberians were there, and are supposed to have come from the south. Other people came from the north, around the spurs of the Pyrenees, or over them through the easier passes. These were a part of the Celtic race, who at an unknown epoch had migrated toward the west from the plains of Central Asia. These Celts are supposed to have left Asia, and in immense armies to have poured over Europe. Some of them stopped in the valley of the Danube, some of them pushed as far as Great Britain, others came into the Spanish peninsula, where they found the Iberians.

It is hard to know exactly what these people were like, and ro keep any distinct idea in our minds of the difference between Celts and Iberians, or to trace the mingling of the two races into another called Celtiberians, as the historians of this early time do. We must imagine a warlike set of people, for they had to protect themselves from each other and from wild beasts. They thought every obstacle was to be overcome by fighting, so they threatened the sky with shooting arrows at it when it thundered, and drew their swords against the rising tide. They were generally friendly with each other, and often united to avenge an injustice done to one of their neighbors.

The Celts who came over the Pyrenees into Spain were tall, with white skins and light hair. Some of them shaved their beards, leaving a long mustache growing down over the lip, and wore their hair in long braids. Their voices were rough and rude, but they had among them bards who sang to them songs of praise or blame, accompanying themselves on a sort of lyre. Their arms were simple, consisting of two lances about three feet long. A short sword, a pole hooked at the end to seize the reins of horses, and a sling, were some of the weapons of foot-soldiers. The horsemen had swords, or sharp weapons which answered the purpose, and lances six feet long. They had great skill in managing horses, of which they had in early times discovered the value. Their food was frugal, a few dried acorns or chestnuts, with mead or cider, satisfied the wants of several tribes ; and they were temperate and sober in their habits of eating and drinking, even in those barbarous times. They had no tables, the guests at a feast sat on benches set against the wall. At these feasts there was music and dancing, but the women were not allowed to be present.

Their dress was simple. Soldiers wore garments of linen or leather belted around the waist, with caps on their heads ; in time of peace they had black woollen cloaks which fell down to their feet.