Scripture lands, in connection with their history; with an appendix, and extracts from a journal kept during an eastern tour in 1856-57.

Front matter

I?. Mm

UNITED STATES OF^MERICA.

IN CONNECTION WITH

Preface

neighbourhood of Sinai. After leaving the convent, we ascended the central pass of the Till, instead of going on the beaten track to Akabah, and we then went across the Paran highlands, by Beersheba, to Jerusalem. With Mr. Clay, I subsequently made the journey from Jerusalem to Petra, where we remained undisturbed for two days, with every opportunity for a deliberate examination of the rock city. From Jerusalem our path homeward was along the usual route, through North Palestine and Damascus. And in this latter part of our journey, as once before, in ee going down from Jerusalem to Jericho," we had the advantage of travelling in company with the Rev. J. L. Porter, the well-known author of some of the most valuable works on Syria.

To those works I have been much indebted in the following pages, and I also gladly acknowledge many obligations to Dr. Stanley's Sinai and Palestine. Once or twice I have ventured to dissent from some of the conclusions of this accomplished writer ; but I should say that, with scarcely an exception, we found reason to admire -the exactness, not less than we did the graphic power and vividness, of his delineations. This book was written, and partly printed, before the publication of Dr. Smith's Biblical Cyclopaedia, I could not, therefore, avail myself, as I should otherwise have done, of Mr. Grove's topographical contributions to that work, which show most extensive knowledge of his subject, and are models of clearness and accuracy. Of the notes to Dr. Traill's JosepJius 1 I have made frequent use. But, like all these

1 All these notes were -written by Mr. Isaac Taylor, who edited the work.

PREFACE.

vii writers, I also am chiefly indebted to Reland's Palcestina, and Dr. Robinson's Biblical Researches. They have justly earned, as they must always occupy, the place of standard authorities on the history and topography of Scripture Lands, Dr. Robinson's volumes were continually in my hands all through the journey, and I can truly say that in perfect correspondence with his wide and massive learning are his abilities as a geographer, and not less so are the clearness and accuracy of his descriptions.

I desire, in conclusion, to make especial mention of my obligations to Mr. Arthur, unto whose large knowledge and clear judgment, as well as to his personal kindness, I was so much indebted, during our journey in the peninsula. And my thanks are also due to my friend the Rev. W. H. Johnstone, Professor and Chaplain of Addiscombe, for his kindness in looking over the following sheets as they were going through the press.

London, October, 1860.

" The whole polity of the Hebrew nation is seen to be a preparation for an universal society which is to spring out of it : their whole literature shapes itself to become a manual for that society. That fundamental idea which philosophers say lies at the root of every nation . . . was, in the Hebrews, the idea of the coming of a Lord and King of Mankind, no less than of their own people. They could not have been fit for any of these ends if they had been less human, and if their polity had been less in harmony with the laws of man and the universe than the polities of the Greeks and Romans; it needed to be more in harmony, and must have been more so, in fact, for more has been able to survive, and pass into new and diverse forms of society. But being fit for these, because the original laws and subsequent developments of their polity and literature lay in such near relation with the ultimate laws of human nature and society, they were thus also fitted to become the channels of God's revelation of Himself to all mankind." — Steachey's Hebrew Politics, p. 94,

Contents

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

On the Sources of the History of Scripture Lands, xv.-xviii. Their mutual relations, and the principles on which the History should he compiled from them, xviii.-xxi. Uses of travel in illustrating the History when so compiled, xxi.-xxiii. The fitness of the Sacred History to receive such illustrations, which also convey a sense of its authenticity, xxiii.-xxxi. Special object of the writer in this work, xxxii.

Chapter I.— LAND OF THE PATEIAKCHS

Limits of patriarchal territory, 1-4. Aspect and resources of the country, 4-8. It was readily conceded by neighbouring settlers, 8. Comparative views of it, 8, 9. Its freedom from depraving influences, and its propitiousness to healthful development, 10. Could only be occupied by strong men, 10-12. Temptations suggested to Abraham by the neighbourhood of the country^, 12-15. Consequences of his moderation, 15, 16. The facilities, on either side of it, for removal from patriarchal encampment, kept it pure, 17. Moral influence secured to Abraham by his position, ib. Isaac's life described, 18. Dangers assailing patriarchal family from nature of its position, 19, 20. Esau's territory compared with that of the Patriarchs, 20, 21. Jacob's discipline needful that he might occupy his position as successor of Isaac on the patriarchal ground, 22, 23. View of Jacob in patriarchal territory, 24.

Chapter H. — GOSHEN AND THE VALLEY OF THE NILE.

Limits of Goshen, 25. Its aspect and resources, 26-28. Policy of the Egyptians in encouraging the Hebrew settlement, 28, 29. Local relations of the Hebrews, 29, 30. Changed aspect of Egypt since the days of Abraham, 31, 32. Trials of Hebrew faithfulness, 33. Social condi-

X

CONTENTS.

tion of Egypt illustrated by monuments, 33-35. Influences of culture working on the Hebrews, 35-37. Nature of their mission, 37. Jacob's funeral, 38. Hebrews and Egyptians compared, 39, 40. Physical influences of their position on the former, 41, 42. Changes in their condition after the expulsion of the Hyk Shos, 43. Policy of the new dynasty towards them, 45. Sufferings in their bondage, 46. Fidelity of the Hebrews in their bondage, 47. Circumstances of their deliverance; the ten plagues in relation to the country, 48. * Circumstances of the Exodus, 49, 50.

Chapter III. — SINAI AND THE WILDERNESS OF PARAN

Comparative shortness of this, in relation to other periods of the history, 51. General description of the Sinaitic peninsula, 52. {Note. — Red Sea passage, 53.) Nature of the country in the outset of journey from Egypt, 54, 55. Influence of the scenery of peninsula on the Hebrews, 56. Wilderness of Sin, 57. Population of the desert; its copper mines, 58. Rephidim, 59. Serbal, the Mount of Cod, 60. Journey thence to Sinai, 60-62. Encampment beneath Sinai, 62, 63. Procedures of Moses when the people were encamped, 64. Scene of the " Giving of the Law," 65, 66. Rebellion of people, 67. Hebrew polity and worship, 68. (Note. — Correspondence between Hebrew and Egyptian rituals, 69.) Works in the encampment ; productions of the Wilderness, 70, 71. Change of climate, 71. Journey from Sinai to the passes of the Tih, 72, 73. Kibroth Hataavah, 74. (Note. — Desert graves, 75.) Journey to Kadesh, and encampment there, 76. Meaning of the " Report of the spies," 77, 78. Wilderness of Paran, description of, 78, 79. Circumstances of the Hebrews there, 80. Second journey to Kadesh, 81. Reasons why the King of Edom refused a passage through his territory, 82. Aaron's burial, 83. (Note. — Ascent of Mount Hor, 84.) Journey to Elah, 85. Route from Elah to Moab; "fiery serpents," 86, 87. Description of encampment before the conquest, 88, 89.

Chapter IV. — CENTRAL PALESTINE

Three distinct regions in the territory now held by the Hebrews, 89. Description of them, 90-95. Views of Balaam and of Moses, 95-97. Comparison of provinces east and west of Jordan, 98, 99. Physical influences of abode in Jordan Valley, 99. Removal thence to western highlands, 100. Ephraim territory, 101, 102. Neighbouring communities; dangers from them, 102-105. Scenes of the victories of Barak and Gideon, 106-108. View of the Hebrew territory in the time of the Judges, 108. Country and nation of the Philistines, 109. Their settlements, or " garrisons," in the Hebrew territory, and their oppression of the people, 110, 111. Reasons of the Hebrews for " choosing a king," 112. Scenes of Saul's conquests, 113. Battle in Michmash, 114. (Note. —

CONTENTS.

xi

Michmash and Geba, 115.) Scene of David's conflict with Goliath, 116. View of the Hebrew territory, and of its relations in time of Sard, 117, 118. David's flight, 119. Scenes of David's wanderings; Adullam, 120-123. Ziglag, and David's occupation of it, 124. Saul's defeat at Gilboa, 124, 125.

Chapter V.— LAND AND HERITAGE OE ISRAEL

Hebrew territory at death of Saul, 126. Enlarged by David up to the limits of the " Promised Land," 127. {Note. — Extent of the Heritage of Israel, 127.) Description of territory gained by David's conquests, 127-132. General relation of this added territory to the history, 132. Eitness of the country around Hebron for the training of David and of his troops, 133-135. Capture of Jerusalem, 136, 137. Scenes of David's conquests, 137-142. Errors in David's policy, 143-146. On Jerusalem, as the capital of his empire, 146, 147. Condition of the country, and of the people, 148, 149. Solomon's building enterprises, 150-154. (Notes. — Quarry under Jerusalem, 152. Temple of Medineet Haboo, 153.) Supposed visit of Solomon to Thebes, 154-156. Egyptian buildings in Jerusalem, 157. Depressed condition of the people, 158. Solomon's commerce, 159. Jerusalem as seen by the Queen of Sheba, 160, 161. Solomon's "kingdom-empire;" its decline, 161-163.

Chapter VI.— EPHRAIM AND JUDAH

Shechem, the scene of the people's assemblage on the accession of Rehoboam, 164-166. Jeroboam's apostasy, 167. Comparison of the northern and southern kingdoms, and relation of their physical characteristics to their history, 168-170. Invasion of Shishak, 171. Effects of it, 172. Consequences brought on the northern kingdom by its neighbourhood to Tyrian communities, 173-177. Elijah on Mount Carmel, 177-179. Encroachments of Syria upon Israel, 180. Elijah and Ahab in Naboth's vineyard, 181. Alliance of Jehoshaphat with Ahab, 182. Scene of the discomfiture of the Moabite and Bedouin army led against Jehoshaphat, 183, 184. Depression of Judah, 185. Scenes of Jehu's history, 186- 188. Designs of Syria upon Israel, 188, 189. Contests between Ephraim and Judah, 189, 190. Invasion from Assyria, 191, 192. Withdrawal of Assyrian arms, and invasion of Judah, 193, 194. Ahaz at Damascus, 195. Condition of Judah, 196. Assyrian invasion of Israel, and exile of the Israelites, 197, 198. Judah threatened, 199. Sennacherib's defeat, 200-202. Renewed invasion of Judah, and exile of Manasseh, 202, 204. Josiah's reforms, 205. His death, 207. Palestine in its relations with Egypt, under his successors, 208. Judah conquered by Nebuchadnezzar; the three deportations of the people, 209-211.

xii

CONTENTS.

Chapter VIL— LAND OF NEHEMIAH AND THE MACCABEES.

Extent of the Persian Empire, and relation to it of South Palestine, 212- 214. Cyrus' policy in restoration of Jews, 214, 215. Extent of the migration from Babylon, 215. Comparison of Egypt and Chaldrea, 216. Hebrews in ChaldEea, 217. Route of the Hebrews from Chaldaea to Jerusalem, 218, 219. Condition in which they found the country, and Jerusalem, 219, 220. Extent of " The Dispersion," 221. Position of the restored Hebrews in Jerusalem, 222, 223. Nehemiah's arrival, and labours, 224, 225. State and expectations of his successors, 226-229. Effects of Alexander's victories on the Jewish colony, 230. Palestine during the contests of the kings of the north and of the south, 231, 232. Jewish colonies in Egypt, 233-235. Influence of Alexandrian and Greek philosophy upon Jews, 236. Else of Maccabees, 237-239. Victory of Judas Maccabeus at Befhhoron, 240. Reformation by Judas ; his wars, and those of his successors, 241-243. "Western influences working upon Jews in Palestine, 244-246. Kingdom of John Hyrcanus, 247. Country in the time of Alexander Janneus and his successors, 247-249. Arbitration between claimants of Jewish throne by Pompey, 249, 250. His conquest of Jerusalem, 250-252.

Chapter VEH. — ROMAN PALESTINE.

Palestine in its relations with the West, 253, 254. "Western features and affinities of the country, 255, 256. State of the country after Pompey's conquest, 257. Antipater's intercourse with Ccesar; rebuHding of the wall of Jerusalem, 258. Consequences to Palestine of Ceesar's death, 259, 260. Arrival of Herod in Palestine, as king, 261, 262. Resistance of Jerusalem, 262, 263. State of country under this rule, 264, 265. Cleopatra's visit to Jerusalem, 266. Herod and Augustus, 267. Herod's buildings, 268-271. Wealth of the country, 272. Restoration of temple,

273. Herod's quarrel with Augustus ; enrolment of the Jewish families,

274, 275. Family of Joseph at Bethlehem, 276. Murder of the Innocents, 277. Herod's funeral, 278. Jewish and Grecian aspects of South and North Palestine respectively, 279-282. Revolts in North Palestine, 283. Roman centurions, 284. Excitement of the country, 285. Csesarea, and the procurators there, 286-288. P. Pilate, 288-291. General features and aspect of the country at this time, 291-295. The Crucifixion, 295, 296. Pilate's and Herod's view of that event, 296, 297.

CONTEXTS.

xiii

Chapter IX.— JERUSALEM IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE.

Palestine the centre of the expanding Church, 298, 299. Conditions of the country in the north; accession of Agrippa, 300,301. Disturbance in Jerusalem in consequence of Caligula's edict, 301-303. Agrippa's policy, 304. His death, 305. Disturbed condition of the country, 305- 307. Felix and his predecessors, 307, 308. View of country from Caesarea, 309-312. Parages of the brigand hordes under successors of Festus, 312, 313. Completion of the Temple under Albinus, 314. Effects of this upon the Jews, 315. Revolts under Gessius Floras, 316, 317. Expectations of the Messiah, 318. Victory in Bethhoron, 319, 320. (Note. — Josephus' misstatements concerning the extent of the theatre of the Jewish war, 321.) Beginning of the "Jewish war," 321, 322. Agrippa's intervention, 323. Successes of the Romans, 324, 325. Approach of Titus and his army, 326. Jewish view of them encamped around the city, 327. (Note. — Josephus and his writings, 328.) View of Jerusalem and of the Roman army during the siege, 328-333. Taking of Antonia, 333, and of the Temple, 334. Taking of the upper town, 335, 336. (Notes. — Ruins of Jerusalem, 336.) Taking of Herodium, Machserus, and Masada, 337, 338. Condition of Palestine through the half-century after the "Jewish war," 338-341. Expectations of the Jews, 341-343. Insurrections under Trajan and Hadrian, 344-346. Final defeat at Bether, 347.

Chapter X. — PALESTINE IN MODERN HISTORY.

Palestine now sacred only for its memorials, 349. Becomes a Roman colony, 350,351. (Note. — Roman remains on east of Jordan, 350.) Is christianized under Constantine, 352, 353. Influences of the country on the rising nations of Europe, and in relation to the heresies of the East and West, 353-355. Its memorials favour the growth of superstition, 355-357. Mission of the Persian and Saracen invaders of the country, 358-360. Influences of Palestine on the Church during the Saracenic occupation, 360, 361. The Turks, and consequences of their invasion of the country, 361-363. Rise of the Crusades, 364. Effects of them in staying the progress of barbarism, and in promoting European freedom and civilization, 365-368. Palestine again closed when free access to it would have promoted superstition, 368, 369. But again accessible on the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, 370. Evils of Ottoman rule in the country, 370-372. Method in which they have served as a protection against superstition and unbelief, 372, 373. Signs of the decay of the Turkish Empire, 373. (Notes. — Desolation of the country; results of free access to the sacred sites, 374, 375.)

xiv

CONTEXTS.

Chapter XL — PALESTINE LN THE FUTURE.

Future uses of the materialism of Palestine, 376, 377. Scripture intimations of its future history, 378-380. Varied manifestations of Christian life when Christianitr has been universally diffused, 380-382. "Work of the Jews in those days, 382-384. This implies their establishment as a nation in Palestine, 384, 385. On the true " Personal Eeign " in the Holy City, 386, 387. Conclusion, 388.

Appendix

Note A.— On Egyptian Chronology, 389-391.

„ B. — On Jebel Monsa and Wady Sebayeh, 391-395. „ C. — Graham's Discoveries east of the Hauran, 395-397. „ D.— On the Mosaic Polity, 397-400. „ E. — Subterranean Jerusalem, 401-414.

EXTEACTS FEOM JOURNAL.

" Land of the Patriarchs," 415-418. " Goshen and the Valley of the Nile," 418-423. " Sinai and the Wilderness of Paran," 423-430. Phils, 430, 431. Thebes, 431-436. Memphis, 436-438.

EEEATA.

Page 212, line 17, dele its.

„ 218 „ 2 1, for possible, read probable.

„ 231 „ 17 „ very few, read few more.

„ 252 „ 14 „ sepulchre, read sepulchres.

„ 257,innote, „ Xijcrral, readXyGTcd.

„ 263, line 20 „ by, read with.

„ 267 „ 8 „ seems, read seemed.

„ 308 „ 16 „ this, read the.

„ 309 „ 11, dele who were, and line 14, insert who.

„ 364, in note, read le premier et le plus grand, &c.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

The History of Scripture Lands is the record of occurrences through which the Divine Cause has heen carried forward, and the Revelation of the Mind and Will of God has been given to the world. We possess this history in a narrative, which is connected and continuous from the beginning ; and the special purpose of this volume is to develop and interpret some of its details, by the aid of personal observations, and of contemporary records.

When the narrative has been completed, it is such — especially it is so graphic and picturesque in the greater part of it — that it invites, beyond all other histories, such treatment for its elucidation. There are, however, certain prior and preliminary considerations needful. The record, which it is thus proposed to interpret and develop, is not single and homogeneous, but constructed of materials from two sources which are distinct in then' origin, and their authority. We do not find the narrative to which our comments are to be attached, entire in the Bible. As the inspired documents do not contain the history of a State or of a people, but of the progress and advancement of a cause, so neither is this history presented by them in orderly continuity of narrative, but rather in isolated notices, that are distinct by frequent gaps and chasms from one xvi

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

another, and which are often interrupted by episodical, and apparently irrelevant, statements and narrations. In popular ordinary classification they may be spoken of as history, but an exacter account "will rather describe them as historical memoirs or materials. They are landmark records illuminating detached spaces in past time, and so carrying us back over the course traversed by the Divine Cause from the beginning, but they do not present a continuously lightened path; and in order to connect them, and that the path actually traversed may be seen, they need such supplementary notices as may be gathered from the sources of ordinary history. Indeed, apart from such notices, the historical books of Scripture are not, as history, intelligible : the entire document is not in our possession. In other cases, the work of the interpreter is finished when he has ascertained the meaning of his author, who thenceforth takes his place as an independent witness, liable to be corrected and revised, and, perhaps, calling for supplements and illustrations from other sources. It is not so in this case ; and this practical modification of the sense in which we call the Bible Records history, must be considered carefully, and carefully observed in the work of interpretation. When, by the best appliances of criticism and exegesis, we have elicited their meaning, that meaning must be considered fixed and incapable of correction 1 '; it is certain and authentic. But it is only a portion, the separated masses and columns, of a structure, for the completion of winch the Book itself calls for our researches into every source of information that is accessible. Monumental sculptures and inscriptions, the traces of ruined works which have been excavated, or which are now crumbling on the earth's surface,

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

XYll tablets, coins, medals, the researches of philology — all these, along with contemporary records, must be made use of by the interpreter, in order that he may read his document entire, understanding its separated portions, and connecting them in an unbroken line with one another.

The Bible itself distinctly indicates the directions in which we are to look for this added knowledge ; and it enables us to fill up, more and more completely, the unnoticed periods of the sacred history. From one to another of the epochs described by the isolated fragments of the Scripture annals, we can pass on continuous and illustrated ground; and, from these supplementary portions, light is cast on either side of the adjacent statements of the sacred record, as from the same source it is diffused and made to permeate through the very substance of those statements. They are made more definite and more significant; the progress and order of events, from the opening of the record, is not only before us now in connected plenary significance, it is more fully lighted up, more vividly illustrated, as we advance ; so that the whole line of history, considered as the chronicle of a series of occurrences, is placed before us in clear, intelligible, consecutive succession — that is, we may say, throughout miraculously perfect ; for, while part has been given by special inspiration, the supplementary portion cannot, in many instances, be ascribed to anything less than a providential conservation of the materials from which it has been obtained.

Now, it is to the narrative when thus completed, and not simply to the inspired fragments of it, that our illustrations are to be attached ; and we must, therefore, first combine and weave it out of these heterogeneous materials.

b xvm

INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.

The following work, therefore, consists, in fact, of two parts. There is, first, the compilation from the sources, and in the manner above indicated, of the continuous history ; and then there are the illustrations which may be helpful in elucidating it. In both parts our path is such that we must advance in it cautiously, and under the guidance of principles clearly ascertained and stated. And here, therefore, it may be w^ell to say a few words of the terms on which those varied materials of the history are to be combined, and upon the law of their mutual relations.

At the outset, then, it may be affirmed, or rather it may be claimed, on behalf of the supplementary facts, that they are as real and authentic, and in this view as worthy of attention, as those are whose blanks and chasms they supply. If these have been given by special inspiration, it is not less true, as has been said, that the others have been miraculously preserved, as, again, open places are clearly left, for the information supplied by them, in the sacred canon. For example, those tablets and rock inscriptions which disclose the state of the Mesopotamian plains in the time of Abraham's migration ; the tomb paintings which set Egypt before us during the settlement of the Israelites in Goshen, and which record the changes of dynasties that ended in the Exodus ; the exhumed testimonies as to the nature of the Babylonian and Assyrian civilization, — furnish information which, while it is not more, is certainly not less, authentic than is that wdiich is written down in the documents whose blanks are supplied by it. Moreover, it is there found where the blanks, the silence, of those documents significantly direct us to look for it. This must be distinctly stated : we must feel that l he information which supplements the Bible history is as

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

six real as is that which, the sacred history itself conveys, so that no feeble jealousy, or unwise timidity, may hinder us from using it freely and confidently for the purposes that may be served by it.

No solicitude as to its authority, or as to its purpose and use, in supplementing the sacred records, need be entertained. Yet, on the other hand, we must bear in mind its imperfection, and the consequent limits of our employment of it. For first, it is far more fragmentary than the other ; we can only find it, here and there, in parts and morsels. Moreover, it comes to us uncommented on, and unexplained ; no living voice accompanies it to expound its meaning and its purpose. Out of facts that are literally dead it is derived ; and plainly, therefore, no inferences flowing from it may impair and invalidate any of the statements with which it is brought into connection. In other words, the new materials must come hi solely for supplement and illustration, never for revision, or for collation. The Bible, and these notices which supplement its annals, are not two independent witnesses upon level ground, which may be confronted with the view of eliciting the actual truth, by means of a comparison between them. We may thus collate the Nineveh inscriptions and the hieroglyphics of Egypt with Herodotus, but not with Moses and the author of the Book of Kings. We know that they are trustworthy, and no conclusions from any other witnesses may be permitted to disturb our confidence in any statements which we have once clearly and surely ascertained are theirs. We are now speaking only of inferences from these conserved surviving witnesses. Any discrepancy in matters of fact, between them and the explicit statements of the sacred volume, cannot be contemplated, as it has

b 2

XX

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

not occurred. Our remarks relate solely to conclusions that may be drawn from the materials in question; and any discrepancy between them and the explicit statements of the sacred volume is a reason for at once putting those conclusions aside, either as erroneously obtained, or as imperfect, in consequence of deficient data for supplying them.

From the form and methods in which these supplementary materials are furnished, this principle or rule of employing them may be inferred. The fact that, though unquestionable, they are thus broken and scattered, as well as lifeless, at once dictates it. And it is indefinitely confirmed by the uncertainty that attaches to them, when regarded chronologically. Those who are charged with the task of sorting them in order of time, or of eliciting from them systems of chronology, give the most varied and discrepant results. 1 And how then should we allow them to discredit an authentic witness, when this uncertainty as to their respective dates leaves us in doubt whether they are so placed in time as that they can be confronted with him ? Besides, no chronological boundaries are clearly marked in the earlier portions of the sacred volume. We must abandon the hope of arranging the primeval stages of the history with precision, and of measuring accurately, even in centuries, the exact length from its starting point of its downward flow, or, again, if we could fix this, of estimating the exact distance of that point from the beginning. There -are, as is well known, three distinct systems of chronology given in connection with the inspired text ; and that which is in most common use is, in important instances, blemished by inconsistencies that are only to be explained by such a 1 See Appendix, Note A.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

xxi corruption of the text as adds to the perplexity here spoken of. Had the chronology of the Bible been single and defined, then, in accordance with the principles above laid down, it must have overruled every intimation from inferior and ordinary sources. But as the case stands, in the uncertainty which here besets us for a long period on both sides, we can but distantly approach to a synchronization of the events communicated from our two sources of information. And in this synchronization, those which we have called the supplementary materials must, both on account of their greater vagueness as shown by the discrepant results that have been obtained from them, as because they are broken, scattered, lifeless, unexplained, while yet they are authentic, bear a part that is only secondary and subordinate.

In this aspect they must be regarded, while yet/jn weaving into continuous narrative the history to which our illustrations are to be attached, we may use them freely and confidently in whatever quarter they may be found. — Being, then, in this manner, and in subjection to these rules, completed, the history must next be handed over to the traveller, that his special work upon it may be accomplished. Here then, is the region of the special labour of the writer of this volume : the record, thus entire, is to be illustrated, and brought into relief: as far as possible it is now to be reanimated, by means of those peculiar aids which nothing will furnish but actual inspection of the scenes where the history was transacted.

For all history, however accurately written, is, of necessity, partly written in language that needs to be translated ; and for this purpose it must be carried away and read in the very scene where the events occurred, that are described xxii

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

in it. The original language of large portions of every record is found in the shape, and aspect, and properties of the material framework of its narrations. The ground, the climate, the physical relations of the country, the levels and configuration of its surface, its rivers and its coasts, its sky, its soil, its temperature, the form and scale on which all these are fashioned — and then, again, its domestic and national usages, the costume of its social life — all these are not accessory, but essential, portions of the narrative. They determine, and shape, and animate it. They give the rate of its intensity, and the line of its direction, and the mould of its development. Hence they constitute part of the language that conveys it ; and whatever words, therefore, represent them, must be often and closely collated with the original, that they may be duly valued and understood ; the mere names that designate the features of the country, its rivers, mountains, plains, — must be continually defined and realized by free detail and description: the significance of geographical terms and phrases must be interpreted by means of particulars that are precisely given, and that represent, as nearly as may be, in known equivalents, the unknown value and emphasis of the original expression. In its soil, and sky, and climate, in its yet surviving social usages, we look on the very things of which the text of the history gives us the symbols and representatives; and we must render these, by minute, particular description, into forms that will accurately represent them to the reader. Correctly as they may be written down on the page before him, each allusion to the material framework of the history will actually mislead him, if he is not, in this way, by this reference to the very state and complexion of the place,