An advanced history of England from the earliest times to the present day

Front matter

ub hi::

jliiiSii;!^'

i

Book I ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST. CHAPTER PAGE

I. PREHISTORIC AND CELTIC BRITAIN", 3

Prehistoric Inhabitants — Thelvernians — The Celts — First Civilised Visitors — Caesar's Expeditions.

II. BRITAIN UNDER THE ROMANS, . . . '. . .13

Roman Conquest of Britain — Introduction of Roman Civilisation — Causes of the Withdrawal of the Romans.

III. THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN BRITAIN, .... 19

Little known of first English Invasion — Gildas' Account most trustworthy — Later Conquests of Ceawlin and Ethelfrith — Effects of the Conquest on the Britons.

IV. THE CONVERSION OF THE ENGLISH, 26

Preaching of Augustine and of the Celtic Missionaries — Synod of Whitby — Organisation of the Church of Theodore — Influence of the Church — Supremacy of the Northumbrians, then of the Mercians, then of the West Saxons under Egbert.

V. INSTITUTIONS OF THE ENGLISH, 40

Physical Features of the Country — Local Government of the Township, the Hundred, and the Shire — Central Government in the hands of the King and Witenagemot — English Society in the Ninth Century.

VI. THE INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN, 51

The Ethnology of the Northmen — Their Early Invasions — The Youth of Alfred the Great — Accession of Alfred — His struggles against the Danes — Peace of Wedmore — The Danelaw — Political Effects of the Danish Settlement — Reorganisation of his Kingdom by Alfred — Later Wars with the Danes — Death of Alfred.

X An Advanced History of England

CHAPTER PAGE

VII. RECONQUEST OF THE DANELAW, 61

Edward the Elder begins au oflfensive War against the Danes, and secures his Conquests by Fortifications— Edward is acknowledged Overlord by the whole Island— Battle of Brunanburh— Conquest of Strathclyde— The Policy of Edgar and Dunstan.

VIII. THE DANISH CONQUEST, . 69

Renewal of the Danish Invasions — Feeble resistance of the English — Canute's Reign — Rise of Godwin — Reigns of Harold and Hardicanute.

IX. THE NORMAN CONQUEST, 7.6

The Character of Edward the Confessor — Influx of Normans- Godwin and his Family unsuccessfully oppose the Normans — Visit of William of Normandy to England — Return of Godwin and Banishment of the Normans — Character of Harold, Godwin's Son — Accession of Harold — Battles of Stamford Bridge and Hastings.

Book II THE NORMAN KINGS OF ENGLAND (1066-1154)

Completion of the Conquest — Apportionment of the Soil and Offices — Discontent of the Normans — Doomsday Book — Quarrels in the Royal House.

II. WILLIAM II. (1087-IIO0),

Contest with the Barons continued — Tlie enforcement of the Feudal Dues— The first Crusade.

III. HENRY I. (1IOO-II35),

Conciliatory measures — Suppression of the Barons — The Investiture question — Reorganisation of the central Government — Social Progress.

Stephen's success— Contest for the Crown— Battles of Northallerton and Lincoln— Siege of Oxford— Effects of the War- Henry of Anjou.

Contents xi

Book III THE EAELIER ANGEVIN KINGS, SOMETIMES CALLED PLANTAGENETS

;hapter page

Keorganisation of the Kingdom — The great Scutage — The Becket Quarrel — Judicial Eeforms — Conquest of Ireland — Abortive Revolt of the Barous — Quarrels in the Royal Family.

Exploits and Imprisonment of Richard — lu his absence the Kingdom is governed by his Ministers — C^onstitutional and Social Progress of the time — Richard's Death .

John's ill character leads to the loss of France, a quarrel with the Church, and finally his iniquitous life and Government cause a union of all classes to extort the Great Charter — A French Prince invited to take the Throne.

The Regency of William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke — His place taken by Hubert de Burgh — Henry takes the rule into his own hands, governs badly, and allows himself to fall into the hands of Favourites — Rise of a Baronial Party under Simon de Montfort — The Barons' Wars.

Book IV THE LATER ANGEVIN KINGS, SOMETIMES CALLED PLANTAGENETS

Age of Legislative Activity — Final Conquest of Wales — A Scottish Dynastic difficulty leads to its Annexation — Complete and Model Parliament — The Confirmation of the Charters — Scottish Revolt.

Piers Gaveston — The Lords Ordainers — Gaveston's Death — Bruce's Scottish successes — Bannockburn — The Despeusers — Lancaster's Defeat at Boroughbridge, and Death — General combination against the Despensers, headed by the Queen and Mortimer, leads to Edward's Dethronement.

xii An Advanced History of England

CHAPTER PAGE

Fall of Mortimer— Scottish Affairs bring on War with France, which led to important Constitutional Developments— Battles of Sluys and Crecy— Siege of Calais— The Black Death, and its effects on the Manorial System— Battle of Poitiers and Treaty of Bretigny — Spanish Expedition leads to a disastrous renewal of the War — Growth of a strong feeling against the Pope and the Clergy — John of Gaunt and Wyclif — The Reforms of the Good Parliament.

The Minority— Peasant Revolt — The Lollards— Opposition Nobles displace the King's Ministers — Richard's personal rule — His revenge on the Nobles, and final fall.

Book V THE LANCASTEIAN AND YORKIST KINGS

Rebellions in Richard's Favour — The Lollards — Owen Glendower — The Risings of the Percies and of Scrope — Foreign Affairs — Henry's Constitutional Government.

The French Wars — Agincourt — Siege of Rouen — Treaty of Troyes.

III. HENRY VI. (1422 — DETHRONED I461 — DIED I471), . . 324

French Wars — Siege of Orleans — Loss of France — Growth of Hostile Parties headed respectively by the Beauforts and the Duke of York — Outbreak of Civil War — Dethronement of Henry vi.

Battle of Towton and Suppression of the Lancastrians — Edward's Marriage — Warwick intrigues for Power — Restoration of Henry— Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury— Death of Henry— Expedition to France— Power of Edward.

Richard of Gloucester becomes Protector, and eventually Edward is dethroned.

Murder of the Princes — Morton's Conspiracy — Benevolences condemned— Conspiracy of Henry Tudor— Bosworth.

Contents xiii

Book VI THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. HAPTER PAGE

Policy of Henry vii. — Rebellion of Simnel and Perkin — Ireland — Strengthening of the Crown — Foreign Affairs.

Foreign politics — Flodden — Wolsey's career — The Divorce question leads to the fall of Wolsey and the separation from Rome — Changes in the Church — Dissolution of the Monasteries — Resistance to these changes — Henry's domestic life — Later foreign policy.

The Arrangements for the Minority — Somerset — Battle of Pinkie, and Rebellions in Devonshire and Norfolk — Ascendancy of John Dudley — The Reformation— Unpopularity of the Government — Plot to alter the Succession.

The Accession — The Spanish Match — Gradual Repeal of the Ecclesiastical Legislation passed since 1529 — Persecution of the Protestants — War with France and loss of Calais — Unpopularity of the Government.

Elizabeth's Religious Settlement — Foreign Affairs— The Reformation in Scotland — History of Mary Queen of Scots to her Flight into England— The Civil Wars in France— The Revolt of the Netherlands — Improvement in Elizabeth's position — The Rivalry of the English and Spaniards in the South Seas — Danger from Mary Queen of Scots — Her Execution — The Spanish Armada — English Command of the Seas — Irish Affairs— Essex's Career and Execution — The Monopolies.

Book VII THE STUARTS

The Main and Bye Plots — The religious question — Parliament — The Gunpowder Plot — The constitutional difficulties of James — Death of Raleigh— The Thirty Years' War— Buckingham — the Spanish Match.

xiv An Advanced History of England

CHAPTER ^'^'

Quarrels with his first Parliament— The Petition of Eight— The Rise of Laud and Wentworth— Imprisonment of Eliot— Arbitrary Rule— Wentworth in Ireland— Religious Difficulties in Scotland— First Bishops' War— The Short Parliament— Second Bishops' War.

III. CHARLES I. (part II.), 5:

The Composition of the Long Parliament— The Trial and Death of Straft'ord— Reforming Measures— The Religious Question and Division of Parties — Impeachment of the five Members- Opening of the War — First Civil War — Imprisonment of the King — Second Civil War —Trial and Death of Charles.

IV. THE COMMONWEALTH AXD PROTECTORATE, .... 586

The Commonwealth — Wars in Scotland, Ireland, and with the Dutch — Expulsion of the ' Rump ' — Barebone's Parliament — The Instrument of Government — The Petition and Advice- Death of Cromwell — Events which led to the Restoration.

The Acts of the Convention Parliaments — Clarendon's Ministry —The First Dutch War— Fall of Clarendon— The Cabal— The Treaties of Dover— Second Dutch War — Fall of the Cabal — Danby's Ministry — Rise of the 'Country' Party — The Exclusion Bill— Fall of the Whigs.

Character of James — Monmouth's Rebellion — The Dispensing Power — Hales' Case — The Ecclesiastical Commission — Attacks upon the Universities — The Declaration of Indulgence— Adverse Feeling in the Country — Birth of James' Son — Trial of the Seven Bishops — Expedition of William of Orange — Flight of James — The Interregmim — The Declaration of Right.

VII. WILLIAM AND MARY (1689-I702), 667

The Revolution in Scotland and Ireland — War with France — Rise of Party Government — Financial Measures — Treaty of Ryswick — The Partition Treaties — The Grand Alliance.

Character of Marlborough — The War of the Spanish Succession — Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet — The Union of England and Scotland — Ministerial Intrigues— Prosecution of Sacheverell and Fall of the Whigs — The Treaty of Utrecht — The Schism Act — Death of Anne.

Contents xv

Book VIII THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. CHAPTER PAGE

The Whig Ministers — Jacobite Kebellion of 1715 — Foreign Policy — Stanhope and Sunderland — The South Sea Bubble — Walpole in Power — Wood's Halfpence.

Walpole in Power — The Wesleyans — The Opposition — Spanish War and Fall of Walpole — Carteret in Power — Foreign Affairs — Henry Pelham — The '45 — Rise of Pitt and Fox — Domestic Affairs — The Seven Years' War — Triumphs of Pitt.

III. GEORGE HI. (part I., I760-I789), 804

Fall of Pitt — The Wilkes Case — Estrangement of the American Colonies — The Middlesex Election — Junius' Letters— Loss of the American Colonies — Parliamentary and Economical Reform — The Coalition — India — Ministry of the younger Pitt.

IV. GEORGE III. (part II., 1 789- 1 820), THE WARS OF THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION, . . . 854

Causes and Progress of the French Revolution — Its effect on the Relations of Great Britain and France — The War against the French Republic — Irish Affairs — The Union, and Fall of Pitt — The War against Napoleon — The Peace — Its effects on England.

The Queen's Trial — Signs of Progress — Death of Castlereagh — Policy of Canning and Huskisson — Affairs of Greece — Roman Catholic Emancipation.

The Great Reform Bill — Period of Active Legislation — The Irish Church — Slavery — -The Poor Laws — The Municipal Reform — Peel and Conservative Reaction — Lord Melbourne's Government.

Canada — The Chai'tists — The Corn Law Agitation — The Afghan, Scinde, and Sikh Wars— O'Connell— Repeal of the Corn Laws — The Year of Revolutions — The Russian War — Indian Mutiny — Parliamentary Reform — Foreign- Affairs — Death of Palmer ston.

XVI

CHAPTER

VIII. VICTORIA (part II., 1 865- ),

House Suflfrage granted to the Towns— Great Legislative Activity under Gladstone — The Russo-Turkish War — Gladstone's Ministry of 1880 to 1885— The Irish Question— The Occupation of Egypt— Lowering of the County Franchise— Home Rule adopted by Mr. Gladstone— Unsuccessful Attempts to carry his Views into Effect— Extension of Popular Government to Counties and Parishes— Problems of the Future- Conclusion.

PAGE

EKRATA

Page 304, line 26— /or the little read Edmund.

305, line 6 from 'bottom— read Edmund, earl of March.

424, line 2 from bottom— /or though read as.

801, map — Gwalior is a place, not a district.

885, map— A^o^e : The size of the ships is exaggerated.

901, map — add Picton's name commanding the British right.

906, line 5 from bottom— /or fifteen read ten.

965, line 16 — insert a comma after Akbar.

985 — Note : Maj^ represents the close of the siege. 1004, line 1,/or Chapter vi. read Chapter VIII. 1026, 5, 3, (^eZe^g the commas.

1026, ,, 16, /or interests read interest.

1027, 5, 10, from bottom, after enemies add or. 1034, ,, 10, from bottom, before members read Nationalist.

ADDENDUM

Page 1039, line 31— The result of the General Election of 1895 was to give the Unionist Government a large majority in the House of Commons, and no less than four members of Lord Rosebery's Cabinet, including Sir William Harcourt and Mr. John Morley, were defeated at the polls.

TABLES OF GENEALOGIES

Book VIII

XIX. Kings of France, 1609-1848, .

XX. The exiled House of Stuart, .

XXI. The House of Hanover, 1714 to present day,

732 732 733

LIST OF MAPS AND BATTLE PLANS

PAGE

Eomau Britain, Frontispiece

England and Wales, showing Forests, Fens, and Moorland, . . . xx

Battle of Hastings, 85

English and Scottish Border, 1290-1603, 204

Wales and the Severn Valley, 215

Crecy, 254

Poitiers (two), 262

North of France, and Campaigns of Crecy and Agincourt, .... 298

Agincourt, 319

Towtou Field, 349

The Flodden District, 396

Ireland under Elizabeth, 476

England during the Civil War, 538

Operations connected with Edgehill, 559

Part of Yorkshire in 1643-1644, 567

Marston Moor, 568

Scotland after 1603, 574

Ireland after 1603, 589

Dunbar, 592

Worcester, 594

The Netherlands, Qm

Blenheim, 708

Ramillies, 711

Dettingen, 770

British Colonies in North America, 789

Quebec, 795

India, 801

American War of Independence, 826

Battle of the Nile, 871

Gibraltar and Trafalgar, 885

Spain and Portugal, 895

Salamanca, 901

The Waterloo Campaign, 907

Battle of Waterloo (two), 909

The Crimea, 984

Siege of Sebastopol, 985

xix

L— KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF EGBEET, 802-1066.

Ethelwulf, 839-858.

Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred I., Alfred,

Etlielwald. Edward the Elder, 901-925.

Edward the Martyr, Ethelred the Unready, = (1 ) Elgiva ; (2) Emma

(1) Edmund Ironside, (2) Edward the Confessor,

1016. 1042-1066.

Edmund, d. 1050. Edward, d. 1057.

Edgar Atlieling, d. 1120. Margaret, d. 1093=Malcolm Canmore, d. 1096.

Matilda, d. 1118=Henry I., d. 1135.

II.— THE DANISH KINGS OF ENGLAND.

Harold Blatand or Bluetooth.

I

I I

Sweyn, d. 1014. Great-graiiddaugliter of

I Harold Blatand = Godwin.

Canute, 1016-1035.

Harold I., Hardicanute (Emma's 1035-1040. son), 1040-1042.

I I I

Harold II., Edith, = Edward the Tostig, d. 1066.

Reigning sovereigns are in small capitals.

(1) or (2) signifies by first or second wife or husband.

CHAPTEE I

PREHISTORIC AND CELTIC BRITAIN

Prehistoric luliabitants — The Ivernians — The Celts — First Civilised Visitors —

Cresar's Expeditions.

In prehistoric times Great Britain and Ireland formed part of a large peninsula which stretched out into the Atlantic from the northern shores of France and Belgium. In those days the extremes of tempera- primeval ture were much greater than they are at present, and con- ^^^t^i"- sequently this peninsula was inhabited during the warm season by the hippopotamus, the bison, and the mammoth, and in the cold weather by the lemming, the reindeer, and the musk - sheep. Among the remains of these creatures, found in the river deposits of the valley of the Thames, flint tools made by the hand of man are occasionally discovered. The makers of these tools were in the lowest state of civilisation, for they were unable to construct handles for Primitive their sharpened flints, and had to hold them in their hands. Inhabitants. Their lot was in every way a hard one, and their livelihood most precarious, and they seem to have disappeared along with the now extinct animals among whom they lived. Their place was taken by a somewhat superior race, who used flints of a better shape, and fitted them into handles which they manufactured out of wood or bone, paleolithic They- had also considerable artistic skill, which they showed ^^"* in ornamenting these weapons with spirited illustrations of the beasts they slew in the chase. Nevertheless, they were in a very low state of culture, for they took no care of their dead ; and, though they could clothe themselves with the skins of wild beasts sewn together by means of sinew threads, they had no domestic animals and knew nothing of the arts of spinning and weaving.

Years passed away, and, after a period of time of which it is impossible to form any trustworthy calculation, this race, like its predecessors,

4 Prehistoric Britain

disappeared for ever from Britain, and is only represented in our day by the Eskimos, who have something of its artistic skill and exhibit the same indifference in dealing with the bodies of their dead. To both these races archeeologists give the name of Palaeolithic or old stone men ; and they describe the former as Eiver-drift men, and the latter as Cave-men. Their place was taken by a third race who came from the south-east, and Neolithic brought with them most of the domestic animals that are ^^"' now in use, such as the dog, ox, pig, sheep, and goat ; they

were also acquainted with the arts of spinning and weaving, but in consequence of the imperfection of their tools these were only practised by them in a very rude form. Before the date of their arrival, owing to the sinking of the land, the ocean had overflowed the lower levels, and had formed the British Channel, the Irish Sea, and the German Ocean, so that they must have had some knowledge of navigation ; while the discovery of their flint works at Brandon and elsewhere proves that they had considerable skill in excavation and mining. To this comparatively civilised people archieologists give the name of Neolithic or newer stone men. They buried their dead with great care, making a chamber of flat stones in which they placed the body, and erecting over it a pile of earth or of stones, which naturally assumed an elliptic shape, not unlike a pear cut in half lengthwise and placed with its flat surface downwards. These burial-places are known as long barrows. From the remains found in them a good idea can be formed of the appearance and physique of the Neolithic men. In stature they were short, the height of the men averagmg not more than five feet five inches, and in complexion they were swarthy. The colour of their hair, which was curly, was black ; and their eyes, it is believed, were dark. Their skulls, if looked at from above, were oval ; their faces, too, had the same shape, the forehead being low, the chin small, and the cheek-bones not protruding.

For how long a period the Neolithic men of this race remained in undisturbed possession of these lands it is impossible to estimate ; but, having regard to the great geological changes that took place in their time, it must have been very considerable. At length, however, their settlements were invaded by a set of new-comers who, by reason of strength, numbers, or skill, were able to drive out the older race and to take forcible possession of the districts where game was the most plentiful The Celtic o^ where agriculture was most productive. The new-comers Invasion, ^re known as Celts. They were the advanced guard of a group of nations who have played a most important part in the history of the world, and are known to ethnologists as the Aryan family. The terms Aryan and Celt are quite diff'erent from Palaeolithic and Neolithic.

The Aryans 5

The former are race names, while the latter simply denote a state of civilisation. For a time both the Celts and the people they displaced were in the Neolithic stage, and consequently when it is needful to distinguish between them it is usual to employ some other term. For this reason we designate the older race by the name of Iberians or Ivernians. The Ivernians are the oldest race which has taken any part in forming the blood of the present European population. As a separate nationality they are only represented at most by the Basques of the Pyrenees, and there is some doubt even about this. It is, however, certain that at one time they were spread over all Europe west of the Khine and the Rhone, and over Switzerland ; and their blood has largely mingled with that of their Aryan conquerors. Where the Aryans came from is a matter of great dispute. Some cling to the theory that the original home of the race was in Central Asia, on

The iV*»T7or\c

the upland slopes which lead to the Himalayas ; others believe that the true mother-land is to be found near the shores of the Baltic, on the flats of Pomerania, or among the marshes of Sweden. However this may be, the Aryans have now established themselves in all, or almost all, the temperate regions of the globe ; for there belong to this race not only the main stock of the Persians, Greeks, and Romans of the ancient world, but a considerable portion of the Hindoos, and of modern Europeans, the French, Spaniards, Germans, Slavs, and Italians, besides the inhabitants of the British Isles and their descendants in America, South Africa, and Australia. Climate and the continual mingling of their blood with that of other races have long since modified the aspect of the Aryans, and made it very hard to say which of these nations has preserved most of the original characteristics of the stock.

It is not difficult to distinguish between the two races. The Celts were light of limb and tall of stature, having indeed an average height of five feet eight inches, or three inches taller than that of the Ivernian men. The outline of their skulls, viewed from the same

• . The Celts

position, was round. Their foreheads were high, their

cheek-bones prominent, and their eyes, it is believed, were blue. Like

the Neolithic men, the Celts were in the habit of burving; their dead

with reverence ; but, unlike them, they covered the grave with a barrow

shaped like a cone or a bell. Some of the bronze-using men, however,

made a practice of burning their dead, and the two methods of burial

were apparently carried on side by side. This difierence of practice

may have been caused by a difference in religion, or possibly the reason

may be connected with the arrival of a new race. The language of the

6 Celtic Britain

Aryans, which is represented not only by those of the nations mentioned above, but also by Sanskrit and Latin and Greek, is very different in structure both from Basque, which is the modern representative of Ivernian, and also from Hebrew and Arabic, which belong to the Semitic family. For example, the first four numerals in Welsh are un, dau, tri, in Greek they are eis, duo, tris, and in Sanskrit eTca, dir, tri, while in Basque they are bat, hi, hirii.

When the pioneers of the Celtic race invaded Britain they had almost brought to a close their contest with the Ivernians of the continent, Celtic Con- having compelled them to evacuate the north of Italy, quest. almost the whole of Gaul, and much of the Spanish

Peninsula. This contest, which occupied a very considerable period, took place at a time when the Celts were passing through a transition stage in civilisation ; for whereas at the beginning of their invasions they were using practically the same stone weapons as their antagonists, at its close they had adopted weapons of bronze of an ancient Mediterranean type. The importance of this change is obvious ; for not only did their better weapons give the bronze-using men an enormous superiority over those who had nothing more efi'ective than stone, but also in the unending struggle with nature man acquired a most valuable reinforcement of aggressive power. Hitherto, though Neolithic man had possessed some acquaintance with the cultivation of wheat, and knew the valuable properties of some of the herbs and vegetables which we now use at table, agriculture on a large scale had been impracticable. But the introduction of metal tools revolutionised the farmer's life. Henceforward the axe became more efficient, the spade and the plough became possible ; forests could be felled, fens could be drained, wastes could be cultivated, and the age when nature, which was formerly the tyrant, became the handmaid of man may fau'ly be said to have begun. Whether the invading Celts met with much resistance at the hands of the older inhabitants of the island, or whether the stone-using men at once recognised the hopelessness of the contest, has not been determined ; but it is certain that the remains of both races are to be found in the same barrows, at any rate in France, and that skeletons combining the characteristics of both bear evidence of intermarriage.

After the lapse of some time a new swarm of Celts made their appearance in Britain and drove the older settlers before them, as they, at an earlier date, had displaced the Ivernians. The result of this was to cause a westerly movement of the whole population, in the course of which, if not before, the older race of Celts made their way into Ireland. The Ivernians were driven into the west of that country and into the

330 B.C. Pytheas' Voyage 7

north of Scotland, and, probably being unable to maintain their independence, and impelled by the fear of a new danger, made common cause with their old antagonists against a common foe. It is not thought that there was any marked difference in the physical characteristics of the Celts, new and old ; but they spoke different though kindred languages, and at a later date it is possible to tell by a study of their inscriptions and of their place-names which parts of the country were inhabited by each. It is usual to speak of the older Celts as Goidels, Gaedels, or Gaels, and of the newer as Brythons or Britons. The name Brython probably means clothed ; the meaning of Goidel is unknown. It is from the Brythons that the name of Britain is derived ; but the oldest name of the island is Albion, the origin of which, however, is a matter of uncertainty.

Meanwhile, the existence of the islands had become an object of interest to the civilised races which dwelt round the Mediterranean. The necessity of securing a constant supply of tin forced Massiiian the bronze-using nations of antiquity to search in all direc- Discoveries, tions for that metal, and produced a keen rivalry for the possession of those districts where it could be found in the greatest abundance. Amongst these the Spanish Peninsula was famous, and it was early monopolised by the merchants of Tyre and, on the decline of that city, by its colony Carthage, which made the rigid exclusion of all rivals a matter of unvarying policy. Such jealous exclusiveness naturally provoked reprisals, and in the latter half of the fourth century before Christ, when Alexander was in the midst of his Asiatic conquests, the Eomans sent an ambassador to the Greek colony of Massilia (Marseilles) to inquire whether the merchants there could tell them anything as to the possibility of opening up a trade with the tin-producing countries of the north-west. The Massilians could tell the Eomans little or nothing ; but, their own curiosity having been aroused, they fitted out two expeditions, one of which was to explore the coast of Africa southwards ; the other, passing by Cadiz, the most westerly of the old Phoenician settlements, was to make its way to the northwards in hopes of finding new stores of tin, and also of discovering the situation of the coast whence from time immemorial large quantities of amber had been carried overland to the shores of the Adriatic. Pytheas, who took command of the latter fleet, was a man of science who gained a great reputation by accurately calculating the latitude of Massilia, and also by explaining the causes of the tides ; and it is from his own pen that we learn what is known of the expedition in which he bore so distinguished a part. Unhappily, his original work has been lost ; but so great was his reputation that

8 Celtic Britain 330 B.C.

almost all the Greek iind Koman geographies contain quotations from it, so that a considerable number of fragments have in this way been preserved.

After calling at Cadiz, Pytheas made his way to the mouth of the river Loire, and thence, without attempting to land in what is now called

Voyage of Cornwall, of whose wealth in tin he appears to have been

Pytheas. ignorant, continued his voyage to the coast of Kent, and, landing there, was probably the first civilised man who set foot on the shores of Britain. He seems to have reached the island in early spring, and remained there till the summer, when he set sail in search of the amber-coast, and is thought by some to have penetrated the Baltic as far east as the mouth of the Vistula ; he also followed the coast of Norway till he found himself within the Arctic circle, where the sun ceases to set, but ' revolves from west to east and shines through the whole summer's night.' At this point he changed his course and returned to the coast of Britain, which he followed southwards as far as Kent. After a short rest he sailed for home, and, landing at the mouth of the Garonne, made his way to Marseilles by land. Unfortunately, Pytheas was not versed in ethnology, so he does not tell us much that we should like to know about the distribution of the races of Britain, and his chief inquiries were doubtless about the supply of tin. He tells us, however, of the abundance of grain which he observed in the fields ; of the peculiar but pleasant drink which the islanders made by mixing wheat and honey, in much later ages known to their Welsh descendants under the name of metheglin ; of their threshing-floors roofed in to provide against changes of weather ; and of a species of beer.