Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France : his life and times

Preface

THIS narrative was originally sketched by the writer as one of a series of efforts to weave into association events and characters of history, in such manner as to prove interesting as well as instructive. It has been arranged for publication with the hope that it may prove acceptable to a larger circle than that for which it was originally written.

The era which it covers is a most attractive one. The chivalry of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries had reached its height, and its period of decadence had begun. The gentler influences which it had exerted over a rude and ignorant society, in its brilliant pageants, its romance, the songs of its troubadours, and its devotion to woman, were declining, and preparing to make way for the oncoming of an order in which the rights of the weak were to be better protected. The cross-bow, the battle-axe, and the coat of mail were to disappear before the power of gunpowder, and military force was to be employed to sustain, and not to destroy, the rights of the citizen.

The name of Bertrand du Guesclin is held in reverence by the Frenchman of to-day as that of one vi Preface.

by whose efforts the unity of ancient France was secured. The brilHancy of his Hfe, filled as it was with events of thrilling interest, does not suffice to explain the affection and reverence which attach themselves to his name. The recognition of the inestimable services which he rendered to his country by his unselfish and unswerving patriotism, and the admiration which his personal character and remarkable exploits call forth, serve to surround him with an atmosphere almost legendary.

A great and loyal captain who, by the success of his arms, lifts his native land from the depths of distress and despondency, who frees her from her oppressors and replaces her firmly in her place among the great nations of the earth, is more than a hero, he is a saviour. It is in this light that the French patriot views Du Guesclin. He was to his country in the fourteenth, what Joan of Arc was in the following century.

To appreciate his full relation to the events of his time, we must recognise the decadence of French military glory, which had been so uninterruptedly brilliant during the preceding three centuries, as well as the progress which England had been making in military art. This first made itself felt in the defeat at Crecy, and later in the prostrating disaster at Poitiers.

Sprung from a humble Breton ancestry, with few advantages of position or of early education, Du Guesclin won his way from an obscure position to that of the first citizen of France, through the force of his own courage, integrity, prowess, and rare military genius.

Preface. vil

Beginning his career in the struggle between John de Montfort and Charles de Blois for the succession to the Duchy of Brittany, he later led the Free Companies out of France, banished Peter the Cruel from the throne of Castile, and placed Henry of Trastamara upon it, and finally, as the Constable of France, drove the English almost entirely from their extensive possessions in that country.

The facts given in this sketch have been gathered from the chronicles of contemporaneous historians, as well as from those of subsequent periods, and such contributions as visits of the author to many of the sections in which the events occurred have afforded. The narrative of the Troubadour Cuvelhier and the Chronicles of Froissart have afforded much of minute detail. Morice, Rymer, Luce, and others have contributed verifications.

The repetition, however, of what others have well said is not the object of this sketch. It is written with the hope of placing the Breton hero in his true character and position, freed, on the one hand, from the influences of an inadequate estimate of the actual social and political conditions of his time, and, on the other, from the false conceptions of character, which naturally arise from the distance in time between the living present and remote past, as well as from the distortion produced by the roseate mists of a romantic atmosphere which envelop it.

E. V. S.

Chapter I. Youth And Early Education

PAGE

Bertrand du Guesclin — His birth and early boyhood — Early education — Love for athletic sports — His youth — Influences impressing his later life — The fete at Rennes — His first military achievement. I

Chapter II. Social Conditions Of The Fourteenth Century

Brittany in the fourteenth century — Conditions of society — Houses and villages — Furniture, food and customs — Faults of society — Chivalry represented its best characteristics — Origin and character of chivalry — The Chevalier — The orders of Chivalry — What it represented — What it accomplished — Military organization in the fourteenth century — The great battles of the century — The armour of the period — Military tactics — Strategy almost unknown — The influence of gunpowder. ii

CHAPTER HI.

THE STRUGGLE FOR SUCCESSION.

The Duchy of Brittany ; political conditions — Struggle for the Succession— John de Montfort a prisoner — The Countess

X Contents.

takes the field — Edward III. aids the cause — Robert d'Artois — Execution of the Breton Nobles — Du Guesclin an adherent of Charles de Blois — Adventures near Forgeray — The Battle of Crecy — Truce between France and England — Death of Philippe de Valois — Succession of John II. — Death of Jeanne du Malmains — War of the Partisans — Du Guesclin a partisan — "Battle of the Thirty" — Efforts for peace — The Black Prince invades France — Le Marechal d'Audrehem — Du Guesclin at Montmuran — He captures the Castle of Forgeray. 31

Chapter IV. English Invasion Of France

The battle of Poitiers — Release of Charles de Blois — The siege of Rennes — Du Guesclin and Sir Thomas Canterbury — Combat with Sir William Brambourg — The affair with Troussel. 5g

Chapter V. The Dauphin And The States-general

The Dauphin and the States-General — Origin and power of the States-General — The treaty of Bordeaux — Conspiracy of Etienne Marcel — Intrigues of Charles the Bad — "The Jacquerie" — The siege of Melun — Bravery of Du Guesclin. 87

Chapter VI. Campaign In Brittany The Free Companies

Edward III. invades France — Operations in Brittany — Du Guesclin's success — He is made a prisoner — His release — The treaty of Bretigny — Ransom of John II. — Du Guesclin visits England — His campaign against the Free Companies — The Dauphin at the head of affairs — His confidence in Du Guesclin — The battle of Brignais — Victory of the Free Companies — Their rise and development — Activity of Du Guesclin against them. lOI

Contents. xi

Chapter VII. Campaign In Normandy, And John II

PAGE

His campaign against Charles the Bad — Siege of Becquerel — Treaty of Poitiers — Marriage of Du Guesclin with Tiphaine Raguenel — Affair with Sir William Felton — Campaign against the Anglo-Navarrese — Capture of Mantes and Meulan — Capture of Rolleboise — Death of John II. — His character. ii8

Chapter VIII. Cockerel And Auray

The Captal de Buch joins Charles the Bad — The battle of Cocherel — Du Guesclin defeats the English and Navarrese — Results of the victory — The Dauphin crowned as Charles V. — Du Guesclin's success in Normandy — He aids Charles de Blois — Death of his father — The battle of Auray — Defeat and death of Charles de Blois — Du Guesclin a prisoner — Treaty of Guerande. 134

Chapter IX. The Campaign In Spain Navarrete

Treaty between Charles V. and Charles the Bad — Release of the Captal de Buch — Ransom of Du Guesclin — Charles V. and the Free Companies — Sir Hugh Calverly — Du Guesclin leads the Free Companies from France — Visits Urban V. — Affairs in Spain — Peter the Cruel and Plenry of Trastamara — Du Guesclin crosses the Pyrenees — His continuous successes — The fall of Burgos — Henry crowned King of Castile — Du Guesclin made Count of Trastamara — Peter retreats into Gallicia — Expedition of the Black Prince — Du Guesclin visits France — His return — The battle of Navarrete — Defeat q£ Henry — Du Guesclin a prisoner — Henry visits France, 152 xii Contents,

Chapter X. Successes In Spain

PAGE

The Black Prince and Peter disagree — The former leaves Spain — Henry raises a new army — Du Guesclin released — His enormous ransom — Raises an army for Spain — The Marechal d'Audrehem joins him — Siege of Toledo — Du Guesclin hesieges Peter in the Castle of Monteil — Death of Peter — His character — Failing health of the Black Prince — His difficulty with the Gascon Barons — Action of Charles V. — War with England — Death of Sir John Chandos — His character — Du Guesclin recalled from Spain — He is created Duke of Molina — His campaign with the Due de Berri — Capture of Limoges — lie is called to Paris — Is made Constable of France — His campaign in Normandy — Battle of Pontvalain — Its brilliant success. 177

Chapter XI. The Constable Lowers English Prestige

Campaign in Auvergne and Poitou — English movements, land and naval — Death of Tiphaine Raguenel — Her character — Evan of Wales — Operations near Rochelle — Capture of Moncontour: of St. Severe — Surrender of Poitiers — Defeat and capture of the Captal de Buch — Surrender of Rochelle — Capture of Benon and Thouars — Edward III. fails to relieve Thouars — Du Guesclin returns to Poitou — Affairs in Brittany — His successful campaign in Brittany. 208

Chapter XII. He Drives The English From Brittany

Du Guesclin invades Brittany — Siege of Chizey — Success of the campaign — Du Guesclin returns to Poitiers — Edward III. again invades Brittany — Du Guesclin sent to oppose him — Success of his campaign — Capture of Duval — Siege of Hennebon — Surrender of Nantes — Edward III. invades France — Complete failure of the expedition — Efforts at peace by Gregory XI. — The English remnant reaches Bordeaux. 234

Contents. xiii

Chapter XIII. The Constable Redeems Aquitaine And Poitou

PAGE

Marriage of Du Guesclin with Jeanne de Laval — His campaign in Aquitaine and Poitou — Surrender of Moissac — Siege and surrender of Auberoche, of La Reole and Becherel — Siege of Quimperle — Treaty of Bruges — Termination of the campaign. 257

Chapter XIV. Continued Success Against The English

Death of the Black Prince — His character — Plans of Charles V. — Death of Edward III. — His character — The coronation of Richard II. — Charles V. invades England — Du Guesclin's operations in Normandy — The battle of Aymet — Defeat of the English — Siege of Bergerac ; of Darras ; of Mortaigne — Further operations against Charles the Bad — Death of Evan of Wales — The English invade Brittany — They besiege St. Malo — Failure of the expedition — Du Guesclin besieges Cherbourg — Operations against Charles the Bad. 266

Chapter XV. France Freed From English Occupation

Efforts of Charles V. to possess Brittany — A parliament of the Peers summoned — The Bretons maintain their rights — Du Guesclin's loyalty questioned — His indignation — He resigns the sword of Constable — Regret of Charles V. — Du Guesclin leads a force into Languedoc — He besieges Chateauneuf de Randon — His death — His character. 282

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Bertrand du Guesclin . . . Frontispiece

Feudal France. 1320-1381 , . Facing page i

Showing the Location of the Principal Events of the period.

Philippe VI. (De Valois) ....

Jean II. (Le Bon)

Jeanne de Boulogne (Wife of Jean II.)

Battle of Poitiers. Sept. 19, 1356 .

Battle of Cockerel. May 16, 1364

Charles V. (Le Sage) ....

Memorial Tomb of Du Guesclin in the Church of St. Laurent at Le Puy .

From a Drawing by L. Sagot.

34 46 48 64 136 142

FEUDAL FRANCE. 1320-1381

SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE PERIOD

BERTRAND DU GUESCLIN.

Chapter I. Youth And Early Education

I320-I341.

Bertrand du Guesclin — His birth and early boyhood — Early education — Love for athletic sports — His youth — Influences impressing his later life — The fete at Rennes — His first military achievement.

ACCORDING to Cuvelhier,* a Trouv^re of the fourteenth century, Bertrand du GuescHn was born in 1320, in the Castle of Motte-de-Broons, in the httle village of Broons, situated south-west of Dinan, and not far from the town of Rennes in Brittany. His father was Robert du Guesclin, and his mother Jeanne du Malmains of Sens, near Foug^res. He was one of a large family consisting of four brothers and six sisters, he being the oldest of the sons ; only one of his brothers, Olivier, lived to adult age and survived him.

* Chronique de Bertrqiid du Guesclin, par Cuvelhier, edited and published, in 1839, ^^ Paris by E. Charriere.

His early years seem to have been spent unhappily. He was plain and unattractive in his features and personal appearance, and does not appear to have won the love and sympathy of his parents, who failed to recognise his peculiar disposition. Suffering from neglect and cold treatment on their part, as well as on that of the servants of the household, he was doubly sensitive regarding their kind treatment of his brothers and sisters, which was in marked contrast with that accorded to him. This awakened, at an early age, the resistant forces of a stern and unconquerable spirit, which the events of future years were to further develop in all its power.

It is related of him, that, at the early age of six years, he began to resent the injustice with which he was treated. Not being allowed to sit at the table with the other members of the family, and to share their food, he on one occasion sprang from his stool, and, jumping upon the table, demanded that he be accorded the same privileges as his brothers and sisters. To his mother's threat of a whipping, he replied by overturning the table with all its furniture and food. At another time, when a number of guests were present, among whom was a Converse from a neighbouring convent who was famed for her learning and knowledge of palmistry, Bertrand was not allowed to come to the table, but was seated upon the floor. Many unkind references were made to him by members of the family. The Converse, feeling sorry for him, called him to her and spoke to him kindly. He replied sternly, threatening to strike her with a stick which he held, apparently thinking that she, too, designed making

1341] Youth and Early Education. 3

sport of him. She, however, persisted in calling him to her, and assured him that she intended kindness only. She then asked him to show her his hand, in order that she might examine it and read upon it what fortune and honour lay before him. He replied angrily, " I will believe that I shall have neither joy nor honour: for my father and mother harshly repel me, and I could never tell why. ' ' ^'

The Converse then turned to his mother and rebuked her for her unkindness, saying f, " Dame, is not this your son?" "He is," replied the mother, "but my lord does not love him; I am sorry that he was ever born ; he is rude and ungracious, and he will never be otherwise. He fights, he is fierce, and he troubles the children. If anyone says what he does not like, he is angry. He has neither sense nor manners, would to God he were dead ! ' ' When Bertrand heard this, he rose and said, " Dame, you are wrong that you desire my death: wish that I may live. When I shall have grown older, I shall have a horse which will cost you dear, but you shall be well paid for it; great honour will come to you by me, and to all my friends, whoever they may be."

The Converse then said to her, " Dame, take my opinion ; I assure you that this child, of whom you think so unkindly, will be fortunate and achieve great honour. He will have no equal, and become the most esteemed of the sons of France."

* Cuvelhier, Part I,, v., 105.

f " Dame dit la converse, or ne me celez ja ; N'est mie votre filz, cilz enfes par de la."

— Cuvelhier, vv. I13-135.

This prediction had the force of a revelation to his parents, and from that time he stood before them in a new Hght; but upon Bertrand her words made the deepest impression. Unaccustomed to kindness and attention, his whole manner changed, and after this event his parents regarded him with a kindlier feeling.

His early education was limited. At this period few, excepting the ecclesiastical orders, considered learning of any importance. Although his father was the possessor of landed estates, he had but a slight appreciation of the importance of acquiring the accessible knowledge of that time. In the rude society of Brittany little opportunity was afforded for the development of the aesthetic nature. It is not strange, therefore, that Bertrand should have received but a limited education. Uninfluenced by the softening tendencies of the world of art, and with mental activities uncontrolled by those agencies which could turn them into proper channels, his iron will was undisciplined by the conditions most essential to teach him the important lesson of self-control.

His knowledge was gained from men, and not from books, which were limited almost entirely to the precincts of the cloister; and what he gathered of knowledge was almost wholly confined to the incidents and customs of the times.

He early manifested a fondness and an unusual capacity for athletic sports.

At the age of nine years he was accustomed to gather the children of his father's tenantry and conduct mimic battles and contests. In these he always took an active part, and enjoyed leading and en-

1341] Youth and Early Education. 5

couraging the fierceness of the struggle, shouting " Guesclin! " as his battle-cry.

He manifested here another of his characteristic qualities, that of generosity ; since, after these youthful tournaments, he would invite his companions to the neighbouring tavern, and spend all his pocket money in their entertainment.* His mother was sorely troubled by the tattered clothing and scratched face of her son, and his father attempted to prevent the occurrence of these rude sports by forbidding his tenants to allow their children to join in them. But Bertrand was not to be conquered by prohibition. When his companions refused to join in the contests which he planned, he attacked them. This led to a complaint by the parents of the children, and he was placed by his father as a prisoner in a room in the castle. Here he was confined for four months.

This prolonged confinement had little effect in taming his active spirit, for, wearying of the enforced quiet, he overpowered the maid who brought him his meals, and, taking the keys from her, locked her in the room. He escaped to the castle of an uncle living at Rennes, who received him kindly.

He had now reached the age of sixteen years. His aunt was less lenient toward his faults than was his uncle. She was desirous that Bertrand should share her religious inclinations. Though he accompanied his relatives to church, he found many opportunities, unbeknown to them, to leave the services on Sunday, and to join in the rude sports and contests of the peasantry, for which athletic exercises he had an increasing fondness.

* Cuvelhier, Part I., v. 215 ei seq.

On one Sunday, during the sermon, eluding the vigilance of his aunt and leaving the church, he sought the spot where the sports were in progress. As soon as his companions saw him, they called to him that the champion of all the wrestlers desired a bout with him. On the promise that they would not inform his aunt, he entered the ring, and after a struggle succeeded in throwing his antagonist. In falling upon him, he cut one of his knees upon a flint so severely, that he was obliged to have the wound dressed by a surgeon, and to be conveyed on a litter to his uncle's home. His aunt forgave him this escapade, on condition that he would renounce these vulgar contests and confine his efforts to jousts and tournaments. He spent a year in the family of his uncle, at the end of which time his father had forgiven his failings and received him again into the circle of his own home. Here, by his spontaneous good nature and generous liberality, he rapidly gained favour with his father and with all with whom he came in contact.

An incident which had a marked influence upon his career occurred in 1337,* when he was in his eighteenth year. The marriage of Jeanne la Boiteuse, daughter of the Due de Bretagne, Comtesse de Penthievre, with Charles, son of the Comte de Blois, led to festivities in many parts of Brittany in honour of the event. One of these gatherings occurred at Rennes. Among its important features was a tournament by a number of the assembled chevaliers and squires. At the time of these jousts, Bertrand was at Rennes with his uncle. He at-

* Luce, Vie de Bertrand du Guesclin, p. 25.

1341] Youth and Early Education. 7

tended the fete, mounted upon one of the work horses belonging to his father. He was greatly depressed by being obliged to appear in such poor form. In passing along the streets, he heard the remarks of bystanders, which were far from complimentary. " How," said one, " is this the son of a chevalier ? he is mounted upon a miller's horse! " Another exclaimed, " One would take him to be a herdsman, he is better fitted to drive a team than to take part in a tournament ! His place is the kitchen, he is an eater of soup." '* Pshaw! " said a third, " I have heard such things of him, that, if our Duke knew them, he would make him Chief Pantler of Brittany! "

On arriving at the lists, which were erected in the market-place, he saw the ladies richly dressed, occupying the seats and exchanging smiles of recognition and encouragement with the chevaliers and squires, who were clad in shining armour and mounted upon spirited war-horses. " Alas! " he exclaimed, " I am so ill-favoured that no lady would love me, or permit me to wear her colours. If I but had a good horse ! Were I only armed as a gentleman should be, I would attack the best mounted and would overthrow them, or I would perish in the attempt ! My father has done me a great wrong; he has not given me the position which belongs to the son of a chevalier. But, if I am destined to outlive him, I swear that I will acquire more glory than Roland, Arthur, and Gavain, even if I be compelled to spend my entire inheritance to achieve it! "

Meanwhile, the sound of the trumpets announcing the commencement of the tournament, the prancing

8 Bertrand du Gtiesclin. [1320-

of the steeds, the flashing of the shields, and the waving of the ladies' scarfs all served to make him more dissatisfied with his miserable equipment.

The barriers were opened, and the champions dashed into the arena. Robert du Guesclin, his father, took part in these jousts. But Bertrand's attention was wholly absorbed in watching the movements of one person ; it was one of his cousins, of the same age as himself.* He was clad in a fine suit of armour, and mounted upon a powerful war-horse. After he had run the number of courses fixed by the rules of the tournament, Bertrand went to him and begged him to lend him his armour and his horse. " Indeed, Cousin Bertrand," he replied, " I will do so with pleasure, and will arm you myself." Bertrand was delighted, and, entering the lists, was immediately challenged by a chevalier whose gage he accepted. At the first onset, his lance was so well aimed that, striking the visor of his adversary, he sent his helmet flying to a distance, and both horse and rider were thrown to the ground, the former dead, and the latter in a condition of unconsciousness. " Behold a valiant Squire!" exclaimed the heralds. But they could not give his name as he kept his visor down.f

When the discomfited chevalier regained consciousness he demanded the name of his conqueror. " Ye gods! " he exclaimed, " by whom was I at-

* Probably Olivier de Manny, who was his companion in arms from the commencement to the end of his career. — Buchon, p. 27,

f During the period in which chivalry was at its height, a squire could not presume to joust with a knight, but only with a squire ; later, and at the period of this sketch, these rules had been relaxed.

1341] Youth and Early Education. 9

tacked ? Never was a lance better aimed. Go and demand of this squire his name and family! " His attendant soon returned with this reply: " Sire, you will learn the name of this squire when he is unhelmeted by you or another, and then only will you know it. " " Bring me another horse. I will not rest until I learn by whom I have been overthrown ; he is a gentleman and of noble blood," he replied.

The skilful and fortunate thrust of the young squire, and the mystery which surrounded him, provoked the bravest of the champions to combat with him ; but they met with no better success than the first, for Bertrand put them, one after another, hors de combat. It now came the turn of Robert du Guesclin, who had, thus far, held the field against all comers. On riding to meet him, Bertrand recognised the arms upon his shield as those of his father, and, lowering the point of his lance courteously, he passed him and returned to his position.

He was at once challenged by another chevalier, who thought his action had been prompted by fear. Attacking him, Bertrand, with a well-directed thrust of his lance, sent his helmet to a distance of ten paces, and again the heralds cried, " Victory for the adventurous new-comer! "

Bertrand ran fifteen courses successfully when, in the sixteenth, he was unhelmeted by a Norman chevalier of great skill, and was recognised by his friends. The prize of valour was awarded to him, and he returned from the festival in triumph. The delight of his father was great, and he immediately promised him all he might ask of horses and of money.

lO Bertrand du Guesclin. [i 320-41

His mother, also, joined in the rejoicing, and, from that time, his position was entirely changed.*

It was the opening event of a memorable career. To appreciate the importance of the occurrences in which he was to play so important a part, a brief consideration of the affairs of Brittany at this period is essential.

'■Sita^ .^iSsSi

11^^^^

^fe| iW^^M

Chapter II. Social Conditions Of The Fourteenth

CENTURY.

Brittany in the fourteenth century — Conditions of society — Houses and villages — Furniture, food, and customs — Faults of society — Chivalry represented its best characteristics — Origin and character of chivalry — The Chevalier — The orders of Chivalry — What it represented — What it accomplished — Military organization in the fourteenth century — The great battles of the century — The armour of the period — Military tactics — Strategy almost unknown — The influence of gunpowder.

BRITTANY, in its physical formation, has a character peculiarly its own. In the early part of the fourteenth century, the Breton race exhibited qualities as stern and hardy as the land which it inhabited.

The Bretons were strong in their attachment to their feudal sovereign. Warm and imaginative in temperament, extreme in good as well as in evil, capable of everything, except restraint ; never halfloving or hating, and warlike by nature, they were credulous of the miraculous and attracted by pomp and display.

French Brittany was composed of the dioceses of Rennes, Nantes, Dol, Saint Malo, Saint Brieuc, and the eastern part of the diocese of Treguier : these were generally favourable to the cause of Jeanne de Penthievre and Charles de Blois. Breton proper, that is, the diocese of Saint Pol de Leon, Quimper, and the eastern part of the diocese of Vannes, was devoted to the cause of John de Montfort.

The partisans of each cause, during a quarter of a century of struggle, exhibited the same tenacity of purpose and the same unflagging devotion to the representatives of the cause which they had espoused.

If we could place ourselves in the rural districts of Brittany or France, at the end of the reign of Philippe de Valois, we should be impressed by the great number of little villages which existed. But few isolated houses were to be seen. The buildings were uniformly grouped into small hamlets. The cottages or huts, of which these were composed, were rudely built. Their walls were most frequently constructed of clay or mud plaster, but sometimes of lath or poles, with hay or straw filling the interstices. Masonry was the exception.

While slate or gay-coloured tiles formed the roofs of the principal dwellings of the cities, the cabins and cottages of the peasantry were generally roofed with thatch ; sometimes, in the vicinity of the forests, with shingles. Slate roofs were most common in certain parts of Brittany, especially in Anjou, where the great slate quarries still furnish abundant material for similar purposes. Nearly all houses consisted of a ground floor only; a few, especially the taverns, had a second story and were more pretentious in their construction and appointments.

The doors of the cottages were closed by wooden bolts or pins, and in such manner that one might easily push them back with a knife. Light for the interior was obtained through the open door, which, in order to facilitate this, was divided in the centre, the upper half being usually kept open while the lower half was closed. There were very few windows, and, when such existed, they were very narrow. These were closed by means of a shutter, which it was necessary to open in order to admit light. Although the manufacture of glass had commenced at this time, the product was thick, opaque, and filled with air-bubbles and irregularities, and was too expensive for use by the peasantry. In some of the windows of the houses of the better class the frames were filled with waxed linen or parchment.