Observations on the social and political state of the European people in 1848 and 1849; being the second series of the Notes of a traveller

Preface

Every generation naturally thinks the events of its c m fifty years A he most important that have occurred in history ; as a straw close to the eye will hide an oak in the distance. It is no delusion, however, to regard the events of the present half century — the changes and improvements in the material, intellectual, and social condition of the European people — as eminently important and influential on the future generations of civilised society. Some of those changes and improvements may be valued too highly; the results may not come up to our expectations; some may be premature, and the people not in a state to profit by them, and some may be changes withom, being improvements ; but still the present generation is entitled, above all which have preceded it, to consider its own times remarkably important, — and not merely from the great historical events and revolutions, the rise and fall of kings, dynasties, and governments of every form, which have distinguished these fifty years, but on account of the new social arrange-

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ments and influences, the new elements of society which have sprung up and are overspreading all civilised lands. Koyalty, aristocracy, church-power, and feudalism in legislation, or in administrative function, have lost root and are withering away on the Continent ; and the communications and interchanges of ideas, tastes, and requirements between the people of different countries — one of the most important of the new elements in the social state of Europe — are now too frequent, intimate, and fully established, for one nation to remain far or permanently behind another in its social and political arrangements. All Europe is advancing towards one goal, — a higher social and political condition, one more suitable than that into which feudality had settled in the 1 8th century, to the more enlightened, more civilised, and in mind and means more independent people of the 19th : and every country is throwing off, either gradually or by convulsive effort, the slough of ignorance and misgovernment in which it had been enveloped for the preceding thousand years. This half century is the transitionperiod of society from a lower to a higher state.

The traveller who has watched the rise and progress of the struggle and process of social regeneration now going on in France and Germany, will observe some very important institutions and arrangements of a very equivocal character, which the rulers of those countries, whether democratic, liberal, or autocratic, have as if by common consent created or adopted from each other in the course of this half century, for the purpose of securing their own power, and of repressing the universal tendency to changes,

PREFACE. V

reforms, and improvements real or imaginary. France and Belgium under liberal or popularly constituted governments, Austria and Prussia under autocratic governments, have equally adopted the centralisation of all social action in the hands of the state, the superintendence and control of all individual action, the functionary system, the Conscription or Landwehr system, and the educational system under government management. It may well be doubted whether these social arrangements and institutions, and new powers assumed by the state, be really conducive to freedom, constitutional government, and the social, material, and moral well-being of the people ; or whether they are not of a retrograde rather than of a progressive tendency, oppressions, and restraints on individual free agency, not suited to the spirit and requirements of the age, fetters in reality imposed upon the Continental people in the name and guise of ornaments or of necessary appendages, and which will be shaken off ere long in some fearful struggle.

It is proposed in this series of Notes of a Traveller to give the impressions and views of these new social elements which have from time to time occurred to the Author, in repeated visits to the Continent. The great diffusion of landed property through the social body in France and Germany, and its good and evil results and tendencies — the fall and extinction of aristocracy as a social power and support of monarchical government — the erection of functionarism instead of aristocracy, to uphold the Continental thrones — the educational system of the Continental governments centralising all tuition of the people in the hands of

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functionary-teachers appointed by a minister of public instruction, for the purpose of forming and moulding the public mind and opinion suitably to the views and interests of the rulers — the failure of this system, by its own machinery counteracting its object, and the philosophic functionary-professors inoculating all the teachers and the whole generation under their tuition with social and political principles and speculations directly opposed to those of their governments — the Conscription and Landwehr system, with its results of giving military power, military organisation, and a restless barbarous military spirit incompatible with peace and industry to the whole population of the Continent, instead of confining those elements of evil to a single class in the community, maintained and controlled by a constitutional government, — these are new social elements introduced within this half century, which must be very influential on the future condition of the European people. Their vast importance is unquestionable, although their results as yet are not fully developed. It would certainly be great presumption to attempt, in the mere notes and observations of a traveller, to lay down opinions or speculations on the future effects upon civilised society of such new and mighty causes ; or to do more than indicate their existence, importance, and present aspects. They are subjects which belong to the philosophic historian or social economist of some future generation. The Author of these Notes proposes merely to point out to other Travellers a few of those new and important social elements for their inquiry and consideration ; and to suggest to his readers matter for

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reflection both on domestic and foreign subjects. In this less ambitious task of merely furnishing suggestions, hints, and materials for others to think over, the Author's own views and observations may be weak, crude, unconnected, or even inconsistent with each other, and yet not be altogether useless or wide of his object in presenting them. He has no favourite theory, or code of opinions on social or political economy, to support by concealing views or impressions adverse to them, or by seeking only what may support them. His aim will be accomplished if he succeed in directing the attention of others to those mighty influences now coming into operation for great future good or evil, in the social state of the Continental people.

The success of the first series of Notes of a Traveller proves that a work which has no claim to being entertaining, well written, or instructive, may, from the advanced state of the public mind in this country, be very favourably received, if it be suggestive. Our reading public desires to think for itself, not to be thought for ; and in matters of opinion, speculation, and theory prefers the raw materials to the made-up article. To furnish the raw material is the object of the following Notes.

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Chap. I

Notes on Effects of Steam-power on social Relations. On Novelty in foreign Countries. On Calais and Dover. Eustace de St. Pierre, Beau Brummel, Edward III. On Flanders, Cassel, the Flemish Dialect. Difference of social Structure where the unlatinized Teutonic Dialects prevail. Division of the Land into small Estates on the Sea-coasts and River-sides of Europe. Division of Land on the Continent. Tendency to its Aggregation in Britain. New Elements in the social Structure abroad. Difference of the social Structure in England. Subjects for the Traveller's Consideration - Page 1

Chap. II

Notes on the Small-estate Occupancy of Land in Flanders as compared with the Large-estate and Large-farm Occupancy in Scotland. Husbandry in Flanders and Scotland compared. Stall-feeding and Saving of Manure in Flanders. Small-estate Husbandry compared with Large-farm Husbandry. Scotch Farming and Improvements. Their Effects on the Condition of the People of Scotland. Introduction of the Scotch System of Farming into Ireland. Theory and Results of the Scotch System of Farming examined. Small Peasant-proprietors and Peasant-tenants. Their Husbandry and social Condition compared. Economy of Labour, the Basis of Scotch Farming - - 18

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Chap. III

Notes on the Theory of Population and Food increasing in different Ratios. The relative Increase of Population and Food stated differently. Land to produce Food artificially, not naturally, scarce for the Subsistence of its Population. Over-population only relative to Under-production from conventional Causes. On the Over-population of Ireland. On the Size of Farms in Ireland. On the Impracticability of converting the small Irish Farms into Farms of a Size for Scotch farming. On the Remedies proposed for the Over-population of Ireland. On Fisheries. On Factories. On Emigration - Page 41

Chap. IV

Notes on Emigration. Emigration by Sea no Remedy for Over-population. Emigration of small Capitalists no Relief to the Country. Expense and Inefficiency of Emigration at the public Expense. Its Injustice. Reasons why a poor Man should not emigrate — why a Man with a little saved Capital should not emigrate. The English too co-operative, and too far advanced in Civilisation, to emigrate with advantage. Emigration from Germany. Letters of Expatriation - - -55

Chap. V

Notes on the Causes of the Division and Subdivision of tenant Occupancies in Ireland — Want of Property — Want of Employment — strong family Affection. Why the same Causes do not produce the same Effects in other Countries. Want of the Sense of Property among small Cotter-tenants. Strong Sense of Property among small Peasant-proprietors. The divisive Element only at work, the aggregative Element dormant in the social State of Ireland. The Manners, Way of Living, Costume of Peasant-proprietors conservative. Well-being in this social State. Intellectual and moral Condition of this Class. National Wealth and national Well-being not always the same. Advantages of the small- estate Occupancy. Which of the two social States is preferable. Importance of the Question. Duty of the Traveller to state both Sides of it impartially - - 79

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Chap. VI

Notes on the Disadvantages of the small-estate Occupancy of the Land of a Country. It is a stationary, not a progressive social State. Want of co-operative Industry. Want of Means to cultivate the Tastes of a higher Civilisation. The small Estates not always divided, but generally burdened with Payments to Coheirs by the equal Division of Land among the Children. Want of a Middle Class between the governed and the governing in this social State. The Equality of Condition in it not favourable to Liberty. Want of Demand for, and the Means to purchase, the Objects of peaceful Industry, Want of any increasing Employment for the increasing Population in each Generation. The Youth necessarily thrown for Employment into military Service — Effects of this war Element in different Countries and different Ages. The History and Economy of this social State adverse to the Views of the Peace Congress. The true Balance between the old and new social State of Europe not to be found in this Generation - Page 93

Chap. VII

Notes on the Loire — on the Change in the French Character from Gaiety to Seriousness — on the Want of Self-government. Extravagant Scale of all public Works from this Want of Control. Centralisation and Non-centralisation illustrated in the Roads of France and of England. The Taste for Display in the French Character. Difference of the Objects on which Income is expended in England and in France. Social Effects of the different Expenditure of equal Incomes by the French and English Family. The civilising Influence of the Diffusion of the Useful Arts greater than of the Fine Arts. On the Effects of government Interference with manufacturing Industry. Encouragement by the continental Governments of the Manufacture of Earthenware — the Effects. French Carts. Ploughs of different Countries. Working Cows and Heifers. Spade-work compared with Plough-work. Vine-culture. Touraine interesting to English Travellers — Houses — Manner of Living — Historical Connection with England - - - - 112

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Chap. VIII

Notes on Land and Population on the Continent and in England. A Reserve of Land in England to meet an Increase of Population — none on the Continent — probable Consequences. On the Abolition of the Corn Laws as a conservative Measure for the English Landed Interest. Rents in Kind. High Farming not judicious with low Prices and Money Rents. On Measures resorted to in former Times for limiting the Increase of Population to the Amount of Employment. Every Country has its own Political Economy suited to its physical Circumstances. Guilds or Incorporations of Trades. — Is Labour a Property ? Socialism is a Revival of the Principle of the Guilds of the Middle Ages — the Principle and Results the same - - Page 147

Chap. IX

Notes on a Middle Class between the Government and the People. On the Reform of the Distribution of Land in Prussia. Fall of the Feudal Aristocracy. Establishment of Functionarism as the third Element in the social Body. Spirit of Functionarism — Dangerous to the Monarch and the People. Case of Torture inflicted in Hanover in 1818. Functionarism in Norway — in the United States. Effects of the Functionary System on Industry—on Education - - - * - 173

Chap. X

Notes on the German Students, or Burschenschaft* Numbers at the Prussian and Scotch Universities compared. Educational System of the German and Scotch Universities different in its Object and Results from that of the English. Why the German Students are considered dangerous to the established Governments. The Restrictions on the Freedom of teaching throw public Opinion and social Action into the Hands of the Professors at the Universities. The War with Denmark was produced by this social Power * 204

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Notes on the Laudwehr System. An ancient Establishment — revived after the Peace of Tilsit in 1807 by Prussia — its Efficiency proved in 1813, 1814 — its present Organisation — not suitable to Times of Peace. Oppressive and demoralising Effects of the Landwehr Service on the People. Landwehr and a Standing Army compared. Effects of the three new Elements in the social Condition of the Continent. The Distribution of Land Functionarism and Landwehr Service considered. Notes on the public Buildings and Fortifications on the Continent. On Penal Labour on Fortifications. On the Abolition of Capital Punishment — why it cannot be abolished in our penal Code. On the Want of Self-respect in the continental Character — Notions of Liberty. Form of a Constitutional Government without the Reality of Freedom - - - - - Page 228

Chap. XII

Notes on the Town and Country Populations abroad and in England. On the Yice and Profligacy of London compared to other Capitals. Prostitution in London — in Paris. Moral Condition of the London Population. Habits, Character, and social State of the English and Scotch compared. Moral Tie in England between Landlord and Tenant. On the comparative Well-being of the Working Man on the Continent and in England. On the Burdens on the Continental Working Man. Military Service. Direct Taxes. Kopfsteuer or Poll-tax. Gewerbsteuer or Trade Tax. Class-tax in Prussia, Hanover, etc. Direct and indirect Taxes compared. Injustice of direct Taxation as a Substitute for indirect Taxes. Higher Well-being of the English Working Class. Advantage of the Continental Working Class in the easier Acquisition of Land - - 273

Chap. XIII

Notes on the Indications in Foreign and British Towns of a reading Public. Printing and Bookselling Establishments in Berlin and Edinburgh. Newspapers, Periodicals, Sects, Meeting-houses indicate a higher intellectual Condition of our Population. On

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the Rhine Provinces of Prussia — Landwehr and Conscription compared — better satisfied with the French than the Prussian Government. Disjointed State of the Prussian Kingdom. The Parts incapable of Union into one Nation. The Union of Scotland with England misled the Congress of Vienna in the Partition of Europe in 1816. On Munich — the Fine Arts — Fresco Painting. Influence of the Fine Arts on Civilisation considered - ■ - - - - Page 312

Chap. XIV

Notes on a remarkable Difference between the Anglo-Saxon and the other Branches of the Teutonic Race, in the Love of Music. On Music and Musical Education — not suitable to the English State of Society. On Theatrical Representation. False Importance given to the social Influence of the Fine Arts on Civilisation _._-__ 348

Chap. XV

Notes on German Watering-places. Manners. Road to the Tyrol. Similarity of the Tyrol and Norway — Buildings — People. Kreut. Innsbruck. Landeck. Mais. Meran — beautiful Scenery — picturesque Costume. Mixed Races and pure Races of People. The Silk Culture — its Effects on the Condition of the People. The Roman Catholic Church — its Influence on the social State of the Middle Ages — still of Benefit as a third independent Power between the autocratic Governments of the Continent and the People. The Prussian Concordat with the Pope — its Failure as a useful or peaceful Agreement - 377

Chap. XVI

Notes on Frankfort in Spring 1849. The German Parliament — St. Paul's Church — the Members — Proportion from the different States — Proportion from the different Classes and Interests. The Club System. The Club Regulations. The Members Representatives only of their Clubs, not of the German People.

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Club Opinion not the genuine public Opinion. Club Regime introduced into English Legislation by the Corn-law League — its Danger. The Club-parliament of Frankfort — its Waste of Time — > its frivolous Discussions. Cause of the Failure of the Frankfort Parliament — the neglect of the religious Element. The Movement of 1848 in Germany traced to the Suppression by the King of Prussia of the Lutheran and Calvinistic Churches, and of Ronge's German Catholic Church. Policy, Conduct, and Character of the late King of Prussia - - Page 409

Chap. XVII

Notes on the Policy and Conduct of Prussia in the German Movement of 1848, in the Schleswig-Holstein Affairs. Retributive Justice to Prussia and to Germany in the Results of the Schleswig-Holstein "War. Real Importance of Schleswig in the European System. On the German Constituent Assembly compared to the Norwegian of 1813. Superiority of the non-educated over the educated Body of Representatives. On Hamburgh — life in Hamburgh — Table d'Hote — Rainville's — Altona. Social Enjoyment of the middle and lower Classes in Germany — its Effects — Advantages and Disadvantages — sanitary Condition — moral Condition. Hamburgh and Lubeck important military Posts for the new German Empire ----- 437

Chap. XVIII

Notes on the Scenery of Germany. Effects of Scenery on the imaginative Faculty of different Nations — on German Character. The Peninsula of Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland. The Limfiord. On the gradual Rising of the Land on the Baltic Side of the Scandinavian Peninsula. On Roads and Railroads on the Continent. Farm-houses and Aspect of the Country in Holstein. Rim of fertile Land on the Shores of the North Sea and Baltic. Surplus Labour. Surplus Land. Pauper Colonies — why unsuccessful. State of Peasant-proprietors in Holstein. A Protestant Convent — similar Institutions proposed. Pretz. Ploen t Eutin. Voss. Gothe - 476

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Chap. XIX

Notes on Angeln. The Anglo-Saxons ~ Who were the Anglo- Saxons? Claim of the present Germans to be considered Anglo- Saxons — difference in the physical Circumstances and Character of the two Populations. The Cement which binds People together into a Nation wanting in Germany — GermanNationality not possible — conflicting Interests of the different Parts of Germany prevent a beneficial Unity or Nationality — federal Union only attainable. Social Condition of the Continental People — material Condition — intellectual Condition — incapacity for Self-government or Liberal Constitutions - Page 508

NOTES OF A TRAVELLER,