Manual to accompany lessons in language and grammar

Front matter

^^ TO ACCOMPANY

Jl^ SSONS IN LANGUAGE

AND GRAMMAR

Part I — How to Write

The first fifty-seven sections of Part I should be studied thoroughly. The remaining sections may be taken more rapidly or omitted altogether. The suggestions in this manual supplement, but do not supersede, those in the text-book.

SECTIONS I AND II — THE SENTENCE

Ask your pupils to bring to class written upon paper five or more sentences selected from one of their schoolbooks. These may be read to the class by the pupils, and the class may decide whether they are sentences and what kind of sentences they are. Some of them may be copied upon the board. The next day original sentences may be required. It will take a long time with some pupils to develop the ** sentence sense."

SECTION VI — THE STUDY OF A POEM

The pupils will, of course, notice the difference between the lines in prose and poetry, and that the first word of every line of poetry begins with a capital.

They have now learned what may be called the fundamental rules of punctuation, — four rules for capitals and two rules for the marks at the end of sentences. Test them first in their language books and then in their reading books upon their recognition of these rules.

SECTION VII — THE DESCRIPTION OF A PICTURE

The questions given in this section by no means exhaust the appropriate questions. Have the class write from the questions here given ; then require the class to make a new set of questions and to write answers to those.

SECTION VIII — THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

After the pupils have followed the directions in the section let them write from dictation all the sentences in the lesson, telling them as they write where to insert the commas, but letting them be responsible for capitals and periods. Call their attention to the use of the period after the number of a section, after its title, and after the title of a poem or composition. They ought also to notice the use of the colon and dash in these lessons.

Sf. Marys River is written without the apostrophe because it is a geographical name.

SECTION X — AN EXERCISE IN REPRODUCTION

Lead the pupils to notice the difference in the use of capitals between months and seasons.

SECTION XI — INITIAL LETTERS; ABBREVIATIONS

The caution at the bottom of the page not to use too many abbreviations, and similar cautions or directions in succeeding exercises, should be repeatedly brought to the notice of the pupils. Children tend too strongly to the use of abbreviations, and are apt to omit the period which is a part of the abbreviation.

SECTION XIII — THE DESCRIPTION OF A PICTURE

Have pupils write a composition by answering the questions in the section. Then let them make a set of different questions and write a second composition from them. Follow this practice wherever practicable.

SECTION XXI — THE COMMA IN A SERIES

In newspapers the comma is often omitted before the ajid preceding the last term of a series; but in magazines and books it is usually inserted. This should be explained to the pupils, and they should be taught to punctuate according to the rule given in the book. The comma is usually omitted before the a7id in the names of firms.

SECTION XXIV — REVIEW EXERCISES

Review exercises like this should be given frequently, much more frequently than they are set down in the book. Such exercises should not, usually, take the full time of a recitation, but rather take a small part of the recitation period every two or three days. These may be impromptu or prepared. For prepared reviews it is usually better to write questions upon the blackboard or dictate them to pupils for the coming recitation than to assign sections for review study.

SECTION XXVII — REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION

When this lesson is assigned, tell the pupils they may study it until they can give the rule for every capital and mark of punctuation except one comma [the one in " When

I was in New York," etc.]. At the recitation period dictate the sentences to the pupils. They may exchange papers and correct without the book ; then exchange again and correct from the book. The exercise will need to be divided for this work.

SECTION XXXI — THE STUDY OF A STANZA

This is a more serious and difficult exercise in composition than the class has yet undertaken. To do it well will require three or four days ; but some other work, involving oral recitation, not written, may be taken with it.

The questions are designed to induce thought, and are not intended to be used to write from. If your pupils have skill enough, let them draw the picture of the scene and then describe the picture. Several pupils in every class will show talent for such illustrations, and the exercise will develop the imagination.

SECTION XXXVII — QUOTATIONS

Call the attention of the pupils to the punctuation of as^ introducing an example.

The pupils should be able to explain the use of every capital and mark of punctuation in this exercise except the semicolon in the last paragraph. Have them do this orally before writing from dictation. If they hesitate much in doing this, the previous sections should be reviewed until the work in this section can be done readily.

SECTION XLVI — A DIALOGUE

This exercise may be written first as a story, and then the story may be rewritten in dialogue form as a second exercise.

SECTION XLIX — LETTER WRITING

If you have already given your pupils lessons in letter writing it has not been amiss.

It will be best to copy upon the board letter forms and talk about them with the class before the children learn anything about them from the book. Such sections as LI, LI I, LIII, LIV, and LV are to be talked about before the book is taken, then talked about again with the open book in hand, and then questioned upon with books closed.

The sections from this subject to Part II are similar in character to those before given and may be treated in the same way. If you have not time for all of them, select such as are most interesting to your class. It will be quite as profitable to rewrite some of the preceding exercises and see how much improvement your class has made since these were first written, as it will be to write the exercises which follow. Do both if you have time.

Section I — The Sentence

The pupil should be led to notice that in Section I, Part I, there is no definition of a sentence, though he has been using the word. Now, a definition seems needed.

Section II — Subject And Predicate

In lessons in language it is important that the form of the teacher's questions should be carefully considered, and that the pupils' answers should correspond exactly in form with the question asked.

Turn to Part I for additional material for exercises on sentences and parts of sentences.

Section V — The Noun, Common And Proper

There are other kinds of common nouns than class nouns, but pupils need not be told about them now. At present the statement, "All nouns not proper nouns are common nouns," is sufficient.

SECTION IX — THE ARTICLE

The rule sought is, a is used before vowel sounds and an before consonant sounds. The use of a or an before h is a matter on which practice differs.

SECTION X — THE ADJECTIVE

Pupils will be helped to good work by making the requirements for study as definite as possible. For example, it might be well to tell them to find two adjectives in the first numbered sentence, page 105, three in the second, three in the third, two in the fourth, two in the fifth, two in the sixth, and four in the seventh ; that in the first line of the stanza at the bottom of the page there is one adjective, in the second two, in the third two, in the fourth two, in the fifth three, in the sixth none, in the seventh one, and in the eighth two.

SECTION XI — THE ADJECTIVE: COMPARISON

Such a section is not difficult if it be taken in parts and learned slowly.

The teacher should not confuse the class by long lessons, nor by going hastily over ground partially understood and not well fixed in the mind ; nor, on the other hand, should she waste time by giving short lessons and delaying upon that already mastered. The way out of this difficulty is to give short lessons, well worked over by questions and drill, and, at the same time, make progress by an additional lesson or part of a lesson of a different character upon some other topic.

SECTION XIV— SELECTING THE RIGHT PRONOUN

When this section is completed an additional exercise of the same sort may be made of the last paragraph of the preceding section, omitting the pronouns after />, are^ was^ zvere, and be.

SECTION XV — THE VERB

The effort of the pupil should be in finding verbs rather than in studying the definitions of the verb.

In the sentence, " The knife is sharp," the pupil will probably think sharp is the telling word, because it tells something about the knife. Show that is is the telling word, while sharp simply shows what is told, by calling the pupil's attention to the fact that if he were to say "The knife is sharp," and some one were to deny it, he would repeat his sentence and say, "The knife is sharp," showing that is is the word on which we depend to make the assertion, or do the telling.

It would be well to have the pupils learn a short list of the verbs in most common use. They are a77t, been, shall, will, may, might, and the list on page 39 of words with which not may be combined.

SECTION XVI — THE VERB

Sections XVI and XVII and Sections XIX-XXV may be omitted if the class has not time for them or the teacher thinks it better to take up these topics for the first time when the class studies Book II.

SECTION XVIII — SELECTING THE RIGHT VERB

The work in this section is very suitable for pupils of the fourth reader grade, and should be taken up as directed at the head of the section.

The work should be done orally first. Pupils may correct their written work from models placed upon the blackboard. One lesson a week will be enough in this section.

SECTION XX — THE VERB: PRINCIPAL PARTS

W^hile teaching Sections XX-XXIII the teacher should feel that it is not so much grammar that she is teaching as it is the correct use in speech of the forms of verbs. Pupils who have been accustomed to hearing correct speech will virtually know all that is taught in these sections before beginning their study, but will by studying them be helped to systematize their knowledge. Others ought to be taught to use correct forms of verbs before their habits of speech become too firmly established.

SECTION XXIX — THE PREPOSITION

If Sections XVI and XVII were omitted, then the rule at the top of page 142 should be omitted also. The remainder of the section can be taken.

Book II

A COURSE of study for this book, embracing eight half years, is given in the text, page x. One for seven half years is given below :

Course for Seven Half Years

Chapters

I

3 4 5 6

7 8 lO

II Topics

Introductory . .

Letters ....

Description . . .

Narration . . .

Reproduction and Essays Longfellow, A Study of

Style

Secretarial Writings Synonyms . . .

Grammar ....

Punctuation . . .

1,2

1-13 1-6

4,5

I

I

14-17 7—10

2 2

2,3

7-10

4-6

4,5 11-15

27-38 13-16

7,8 6

6,7 16-20

1-3

39-46 17-21

7-9

8,9 21-24

4-7

47-53

22-25

ID, II

25-28

8-1 1

55-62 Review

No course is designated for the work in synonyms, as this chapter is designed to be studied in connection with other work according to the convenience and the judgment of the teacher.

It is advised that if the course be but seven half years, Section XII of Chapter VI and Sections XVIII, XX (part), XXI, XXIX, XXX, XXXIV, XXXVI, XLIII, LIV, LXIII of Chapter X be omitted.

In case it is desired to complete the work in six half years, then it is advised to omit, besides the above, — in Chapter V, a part of Section III and all of Sections IV and V ;

lO TEACHERS' MANUAL

in Chapter VII, Sections VII-X, XXV-XXIII ; in Chapter VIII, Sections VIII-XI ; and in Chapter X, Sections XLVI, LIII, and LX-LXIII.

In the courses for seven or eight half years, such of these omissions as commend themselves to the judgment of the teacher may, of course, be made.

THE MECHANICAL DIFFICULTIES IN

WRITING

There are two classes of difficulties which pupils meet in their efforts at composition : those of mechanism and those of thought, the latter including matter and expression. These difficulties should, so far as practicable, be overcome separately.

The mechanical difficulties include penmanship, spelling, punctuation, arrangement in paragraphs and upon the page. When these difficulties no longer trouble one, it is easier to write than to talk ; for in writing, more time is given for thought than in talking, and the matter already written assists the thinking and suggests the form of that which is to follow.

It is not the province of this book to treat of penmanship and spelling ; but ample instruction has been given upon the other mechanical parts of writing.

Nearly the whole field of mechanical difficulty has been cultivated, and most of the obstructions removed by the time the pupil has completed Chapter I and the first three sections of Chapter II ; for these sections, with the accompanying work in dictation and punctuation, cover all difficulties of this character except certain work in punctuation and certain forms of written documents.

During the time devoted to these sections, not much attention should be given to the thinking of the pupils ; the

TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR n

teacher should not trouble herself so much about what the child writes as that he writes something readily and writes it in good form.

During this mechanical period of training, large classes are best, and there should be no correcting of papers by the teacher. Those who make the most mistakes should write their paragraphs upon the board, and the class should correct. A few pupils who write very well should write model forms upon the board.

Mistakes in spelling require special, early, and persistent treatment. The pupils' written exercises should furnish the material for a considerable portion of the spelling lessons of the class.

At the time of writing, young pupils should be encouraged to ask the teacher how to spell any word which they wish to use and which they do not feel sure they know how to spell. Older pupils should look up such words in the dictionary.

As pupils read their written work they may be asked about the spelling of certain words, their use of capitals and marks of punctuation. Thus these three elements of error may be considerably eliminated from the papers before they are handed to the teacher.

The papers of the class should lie upon the teacher's desk from the close of one written exercise to the beginning of the next, and during this time the teacher should look them over sufficiently to discover how well they are done and what the more common errors are.

At the beginning of the next lesson in language these papers may be handed to the class, each pupil receiving the paper of some one else, and mistakes may be marked.

Words misspelled should be underscored. Errors or omissions in the use of capitals and marks of punctuation may be shown by P placed at the beginning of the line in which the mistake appears. The sign \j placed at the beginning of a line may signify that in this line there is some mistake other than in spelling, capitals, and punctuation.

Papers may then be returned to the writers, and each pupil may write upon a slip of paper the words misspelled and make in his copy the other corrections required.

If a pupil has any doubt about the correction of a marked sentence let him show it to the teacher, or copy it upon the board for the consideration of the class and the teacher.

The pupil making most mistakes in spelling should collect the slips containing the several misspelled words and copy the words upon the blackboard. These words should be studied and used later in a spelling or dictation exercise. After such an exercise all words that no pupil has misspelled may be erased and the rest may remain for further study.

It will not do, however, to make the search for mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and grammar the chief effort of the class critics. After these things have been sought out and marked, let the critics next look for sentences or constructions for which they can suggest improvement, and for omissions which they can supply. Finally, let them seek for points of excellence which deserve commendation. Usually, two or three of the better exercises should be copied upon the blackboard, and the elements that render them praiseworthy should be pointed out.

DICTATION

Dictation is the teacher's main reliance in her efforts to overcome the mechanical difficulties of her pupils. One good form of dictation work is as follows :

The teacher reads from the reading book or other text-book a paragraph which the class has studied before, though not for a dictation exercise.

The teacher reads it again, a few words at a time, pausing for the pupils to write. When the work is done each pupil compares his work with the printed paragraph in the book and corrects his mistakes.

CORRECTION OF ORAL ERRORS

Training to correct speech has a positive and a negative side.

The books which this manual accompanies set forth the positive side, which consists, speaking broadly, of furnishing the occasion for the use of correct forms of speech and assisting pupils to develop the power of using these forms. The negative side demands the exclusion from the language of the child of erroneous or inelegant forms, unconsciously imitated from the speech of those about him.

Incorrect language should be corrected whenever heard, not perhaps at the moment of utterance, for by so doing the child may be embarrassed and his current of thought broken, but at the first convenient opportunity. Besides this incidental correction, a wholesale crusade against bad habits of speech must be entered upon. The most common and serious fault in the speech of the children should be selected for special attack. The better form should be presented in contrast and made prominent. The pupils should be warned against this error in their own speech and led to criticise it in others.

It is not necessary to explain the grammatical or rhetorical principles which prove the expression to be a faulty one, but the form to be used instead should be carefully explained and always insisted upon.

Professor W. D. Whitney says, "If a child comes to school in such a state of training that he says come for came, done for did, or the77i for they, and the like, he needs to be corrected outright, and the more authority and the less grammar about it the better."

CORRECTING PAPERS

The careful correction of the papers of individual pupils will not be profitable until Chapter V is studied.

Before this time, general instruction and blackboard illustrations are the means most useful to secure the mechanical perfection aimed at. During the work on reproduction the final treatment of the more common errors in punctuation and grammar should be disposed of, so that from this time on there may be greater. consideration of the thought.

As to the rewriting of exercises by pupils, — if an exercise has been carelessly done, it should be rewritten.

For mistakes in spelling, give spelling drills rather than require the rewriting of a paper. Errors in punctuation are to be cured by careful discussion and explanation, followed by dictation exercises involving the point misunderstood. The common errors of grammar yield to a similar treatment. If the vocabulary is meager, write on the board words and phrases nearly equivalent and usable in the paragraph to be written ; discuss them, arid suggest that pupils select from this list or make an original selection, giving reasons for the choice.

Whenever you mark an error, try by a class drill or by conference with the pupil, to prevent its recurrence. Each pupil should have a language notebook, in which he writes matters to which he is to give attention ; e.g., the words he misspells, the rules for capitals or commas he neglects to apply, the words he confuses in use, as shall diud will, the past tense and the past participle, the ambiguous use of the pronoun.

The teacher should have private conferences with pupils concerning the mechanism and the thought of their writing, particularly and in increasing degree, the thought.

Corrections are most profitable when they come from a growing standard within the child and a desire on his part to make his ideals real. Too much correcting by the teacher or fellow-pupils does harm.

It is better to write anew, not rewrite, after a month or so, than to rewrite anything which the pupil has tried to do well. If due pains has been taken, rewriting is a tiresome and comparatively valueless effort.

Many teachers fear to have pupils do written work which is not to be corrected by the teacher, lest the pupils fall into careless habits.

It is a great mistake to think that all work done by pupils must be criticised by the teacher. Where is the pupil's , ideal of excellence.'' What personal interest has he to improve ? What inspiration has the teacher given that exists independent of the teacher's pencil markings and lasts beyond them ?

The only large incentives are (a) the interest of the pupils in their own work, (b) the fact that their classmates appreciate the degree of their success, (c) the steady interest of the teacher shown by help to do rather than by finding fault with things done.

Section I — The Sentence

" A sentence is a group of words making a statement, a question, or a command," is a better working definition than the one which follows it. This definition includes the exclamatory sentence, for all exclamatory sentences will be found to be statements, questions, or commands so put as l6 TEACHERS' MANUAL

to indicate emotion. Deal only with the simple sentence of the three fundamental kinds.

After the exercise on page 3 has been studied, have the pupils give orally a great number of declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.

When Exercise II, page 5, has been well done, extend the work in accordance with the suggestions at the beginning of the chapter. Insist on having all that has been learned exemplified in all the writing of the pupils, and teach nothing else until this is done.

Chapter II — Letter Writing

Go through the first section of this chapter and then go on to Chapter HI.

Hereafter, for course of study, see Course of Study, page x of the text-book or page 9 of this manual.

Before your pupils attempt to study or do anything with this chapter, give them blackboard instructions upon a letter heading, showing just how it is written. Call attention to the spacing, the arrangement, the capitals, the commas, and the periods. Give no explanations why things are so, but simply say, " It is the custom of good writers to do so." Many writers prefer to write the date at the close of the letter instead of at the beginning, placing it at the left-hand side and lower than the signature, and writing out in full the day of the month. This form may also be taught.

After the pupils copy your blackboard letter heading accurately and in good form, let them write it from memory. Then let them make original headings — original as to items, not as to form or arrangement. Go slowly and thoroughly, so that no part of this work will need to be done again.

Teach in the same way the salutation and the conclusion. Then the letter in the book may be copied. Call attention to the paragraphing. Require the punctuation to be copied, but give no rules for it.

Teach the superscription of a letter as the heading was taught. With the model letter on page 9 before the pupils, question them as to all the capitals and punctuation in the several parts of the letter, except the body (see page 8).

When the pupils have written the exercise on pages 9 and lo, let each pupil write a statement for the parts of a letter, as shown in this exercise. The papers may be exchanged and the proper forms written. The forms may be criticised by the pupils by whom the statements were prepared.

Section II — Letters Of Friendship

These are taken to include all except business and social letters. There is nothing new to be taught about the form of these letters. The necessity of good penmanship and of a natural, easy style should be explained.

A letter of friendship is written for the pleasure of the person to whom it is addressed. Before it is written the writer should stop to think what the recipient will wish to know, and make a memorandum of the points to be spoken of. These points should be arranged in the right order and, if numerous, should be written down and kept in sight while the letter is being written.

All letters of friendship should be kind in spirit and complimentary in tone.

The visits, the parties, the excursions of the pupils will form excellent themes for such letters.

Section III — Business Letters

Explain to your pupils that every heading of a business letter should contain the particulars as to place that the receiver will need to know in addressing his reply.

l8 TEACHERS' MANUAL

The address should contain the items of the superscription, so that in case the letter is separated from the envelope it may furnish the data for the proper address. In business houses the superscription is usually written some time after the letter, and often by another person.

After the class is thoroughly familiar with the forms in the book and has written the exercises in part, other forms may be shown and the pupil may exercise his taste in his letters, or imitate that which he finds practiced by those whose letters he sees, if these are found to be a safe guide. The girls in the class need special instruction as to their signatures. The most satisfactory form by which a lady can indicate her address to the person from whom she seeks a reply, is to write in the lower left-hand corner of her letter : Please address

Miss Mary Smith

359 Prospect St.

Providence, R.I.

Some information as to the dead-letter office and the usefulness of a Return in the upper left-hand corner of the envelope may be given.

SECTIONS IV AND V — LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION AND

RECOMMENDATION

Letters of introduction and of recommendation may properly furnish the occasion for advice to your pupils respecting these important missives. The giver of a letter of introduction should regard considerately the interests and the feelings of both the one for whom the letter is given and the one to whom it is addressed.

The necessity of carefulness and discrimination in letters of recommendation should be shown, and their after effects upon the writer should be pointed out.

SECTION VI — ADVERTISEMENTS AND LETTERS OF

APPLICATION

Drill your pupils on these until you will not fear to have their letters seen by any one ; not merely the letters written in class, but those that they may write in actual correspondence. Have poorly written letters read, corrected, and copied. Have the best letter each day put upon the blackboard for imitation. Advice as to paper and paper folding is always needed by beginners.

Get a newspaper containing a large list of wants and similar advertisements, cut these out and give one to each pupil to paste at the head of his letter sheet, and tell him to write a reply. Not merely a correct form of letter, but propriety of language should be sought. Talk with your pupils as to what is appropriate and inappropriate in such letters. Continue this work until you are proud of the letters your pupils write.

Additional Exercises in Letter Writing

Copy the following forms of address :

Watertown, S.D., Aug. 5, 1902.

Honorable William P. Smith,

House of Representatives, Washington, D.C.

Dear Sir : —

Oakland, Cal., Nov. 6, 1902.

To His Excellency James H. Smith,

Governor of the State of South Carolina. Sir : —

Bangor, Me., Jan. 4, 1902.

To His Honor, the Mayor of the City of Boston. Sir : —

St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 9, 1902.

To the Honorable, the President of the Board of Education of the City of Nashville.

Sir : —

Correct, arrange, and copy the following letter of excuse •

180 Moore St Oct 9 1902

Dear Miss earle will you kindly excuse my absence from school on monday and tuesday it was due to my illness respectfully yours mary Brown approved Mrs John Brown.

Correct, arrange, and copy the following letter of acknowledgment :

315 Wabash Ave Chicago ill Dec 28, 1902 My dear aunt I wish to thank you for the beautiful calendar you so kindly sent me. it will be a daily reminder of one whose esteem is highly prized by your nephew John Brown.