First principles of chemistry ...

Front matter

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Preface To The Second Edition

The sale of the first edition of three thousand copies of this work in the space of a few months, has required the preparation of a new edition at an earlier date than was originally anticipated. Every part of the book has been thoroughly revised and corrected, and some portions have been entirely rewritten. At the same time, the author has desired to avoid the common error of making unimportant changes, which serve only to annoy teachers who already use the book.

The Organic Chemistry has been entirely rewritten (with the exception of the last twenty pages), by the same able hand that prepared it in the first edition. It is believed that this change will give great satisfaction to all who are not tied by prejudice to the theory of organic radicals — those ideal creations, which, with the appearance of simplicity, really encumber us with a load of unreal knowledge. The simpler and more truthful philosophy of the new French school, which is now for the first time presented in an elementary form, will, it is believed, be soon generally adopted.

The adoption of this work by many of the first seminaries of learning in this country, is a gratifying evidence to the author that his design has been appreciated ; and he trusts that those who gave their confidence to the first edition, will find the present one, in some important respects, superior to it.

As the work is now stereotyped, it must remain in its present form until the progress of the science requires it to be again remodeled.

Yale College, New Haven, Ct. )

Analytical Laboratory, Sept. 15, 1847. >

FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of this work is sufficiently indicated by its title. It has grown out of the exigencies of teaching, and has been received as the Text Book in the public lectures at Yale College.

It is important that a work of this kind should contain only such matter as is actually taught to a class by recitations and lectures. 1*

VI PREFACE.

All fulness beyond this is unavailable to either teacher or pupil, and serves often to embarrass the one and to discourage the other. This is perhaps the reason why several works, otherwise excellent, have failed to answer the purpose for which they were written. The science of Chemistry has now reached the point where its First Principles can be presented by the teacher with almost mathematical precision.

Chemistry has attractions of an economical and experimental character, which will always secure for it a place in every system of education. Without wishing to diminish its claims to attention on these grounds, the author urges the paramount advantages possessed by his favorite science, as a study peculiarly fitted to train the mind to a methodized and logical habit of thought. If nothing more is to be derived from its study than the entertainment offered by brilliant phenomena, and a knowledge of convenient economical processes, the pupil will fail of its most important advantage. The beautiful philosophy, the perspicuous nomenclature, and lucid method of modern chemistry, are so obvious that they cannot fail to awaken the attention of every intelligent pupil, and carry him on his course of intellectual culture with rapid progress. * * * *

The author has consulted all the best authorities within his reach, both in the standard systems of England and France, and in the scientific journals of this country and Europe. The works of Daniell, Graham, Brande, Kane, Fownes, Gregory, Faraday, Mitscherlich, Berzelius, Dumas, Liebig, and Gerhardt, have all been used, as also the treatises of Dr. Hare and Prof. Silliman.

The Organic Chemistry is presented mainly in the order of Liebig in his Traiti de Chimie Organique. The author takes pleasure in acknowledging the important aid derived in this portion of the work from his friend and professional assistant, Mr. Thomas S. Hunt, whose familiarity with the philosophy and details of Chemistry, will not fail to make him one of its ablest followers. The labor of compiling the Organic Chemistry has fallen almost solely upon him. ****♦*•*»*

If it shall be found to meet the wants of both teachers and pupils, and to promote the progress of Scientific Chemistry in this coun try, the author will feel that he has not labored in vain.

New Haven, December 1, 1846.

Part I. Physics

PAGE

Introduction, . . 13

Sources of Knowledge, 13 Distinction between the ancient and modern philosophy, ... 14 Physical and Intellectual

Philosophy, . . 14 General divisions of our knowledge of nature, 15 Matter. — General Properties

of Matter, . . 16 Molecules, or Atoms, 17

Indestructibility of Matter,

and Cohesion, . . 18 Repulsion and Chemical

Attraction, . . 19 Elements and Imponderable Agents, . . 20 " The Three States of Matter—the Solid, the Fluid, and the Gaseous, 21 The Atmosphere and Laws

of Gases, . . 24

Air-Pump, . . 26

Law of Mariotte, . 27 Barometer, . . 29

Limits of the Atmosphere, 32 Weight and Specific Gravity, ... 33 Standards of Specific Gravity, ... 34 Specific Gravity of Liquids, 35

PAGE

Specific Gravity of Solids, 36

The Hydrometer, . 39

Specific Gravity of Gases, 41

Light, Sources and Nature, 41

Reflection, ... 43

Refraction, . . 44

Prism and Analysis of

Light, ... 46 Double Refraction, . 48 Polarization, . . 49 Chemical Rays, . . 50 Spectral Impressions, . 51 Phosphorescence, . 52 Heat — Sources, . . 53 Expansion, . . 55 Thermometers, . . 56 Pyrometers, . . 62 Laws of Expansion, . 63 Unequal Expansion of Water, ... 65 Communication of Heat, 67 Conduction, . . 68 Convection of Heat, . 71 Radiant Heat, . . 72 Absorption, . . 73 Transmission of Heat, 74 Melloni's Experiments, 75 Specific Heat or Capacity, 78 Changes produced by Heat in the State of Bodies, Liquefaction, . . 79 Freezing and Melting, 81, 82

V 1

Contents

Vaporization, (Boiling-

Points,) ... 83 Cryophorus, . . 87 Elevation of Boiling-Points

by Pressure, . . 88 The Steam Engine, . 90 Evaporation, . . 90 Maximum Density of Vapors, ... 91 Diffusion of Gases, . 92 Dew Point, . . 93

Part II. Chemical Philosophy

Elements and their Laws of Combination, Combination by Weight, Definite and Multiple Proportions, .

Equivalent Proportions, Table of Chemical Equivalents, . . .13 Combination by Volume, Chemical Nomenclature, Names of Compounds, Chemical Symbols, Chemical Affinity, Atomic Theory, .

Specific Heat of Atoms, Crystallization, .

Crystalline forms,

Cleavage of Crystals,

Measurement of Crystals,

Isomorphism,

Chemical Effects of Voltaic Electricity, .

6-7

Conditions of Voltaic Decomposition, .

Laws of Electrolysis, .

Voltameters,

Sustaining Batteries, .

147 151

" « Daniell's, Grove's and Smee's Batteries,

Electro-Metallurgy, .

CONTENTS.

PART m.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

$, 175

Classification, .

Management of Gases

, 179

Compounds of Chlorine with Oxygen,

Compounds of Iodine with

Oxygen, &c. .

Compounds with Oxygen, 193

Sulphurous Acid,

Sulphuric Acid,

Chemical History of the

Atmosphere, .

Compounds of Oxygen and Nitrogen,

Nitrous Oxyd, .

Nitric Oxyd, .

Nitric Acid,

Compounds of Phosphorus with Oxygen,

Other Compounds of Phosphorus,

Carbonic Acid,

Carbonic Oxyd,

Compounds of Carbon with the Chlorine Group, 222

Compounds of Carbon and

Sicilic Acid,

Fluorid of Silicon,

Boracic Acid, .

PAGK

Nature of Hydrogen, 234

Compounds of Hydrogen, 235 Water, . . . 235 Eudiometry by Hydrogen, 240 Union of Hydrogen and Oxygen by platinum sponge, . . . 241 Oxyhydrogen Blowpipe, 242 Natural and Chemical History of Water, . 244 Peroxyd of Hydrogen, 246 Ozone, . . . 247 Compounds of Hydrogen

with II. and III. classes, 248 Action of Hydrogen with

Chlorine, . . 248 Hydrochloric Acid, . 249 Hydrobromic Acid, . 252 Hydriodic Acid, . 253

Hydrofluoric Acid, . 254 Hydrosulphuric Acid, 255 Ammonia, . . 258

Phosphureted Hydrogen, 261 Light Carbureted Hydrogen, ... 263 Olefiant Gas, . . 264 Combustion and Structure

of Flame, . . 266

Lamps and Blowpipe, 271-2

Safety Lamp, . . 274

General Properties of the

Metals, ... 276 Classification of Oxyds, 278 Theory of Salts, . 279 Classification of Metals, 281

15. Potassium, . . 282 Potash, ... 284 Salts of Potash, . 287

16. Sodium and Soda, . 292 Chlorid, &c. of Sodium, 293 Manufacture of Glass, 297

17. Ammonium, . . 298 Salts of Ammonium, . 299

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Hydrosulphuret of Ammonia, . . . 300

20. Strontium, . . 303

21. Calcium and Lime, . 303

22. Magnesium and Magnesia, 306

24. Glucinum ; 25. Yttrium ;

26. Zirconium; 27.

Thorium; 28. Cerium;

29. Lantanum, . 311

30. Manganese, . . 312

Manufacture of Iron, . 315

Oxyds of Iron, . . 316

PAGE

40. Vanadium; 41. Tungsten; 42.. Molybdenum ; 43. Columbium; 44. Titanium, 327

46. Bismuth, .

48. Arsenic, .

Arsenious

>cid, White

329 331 332 ?34

Detection o' i* senic as a poison, . . . 336

54. Palladium, . .348

Part IV. Organic Chemistry

Introduction, . . 350

General Properties of Organic Bodies, . 350 Modes of Combination, 352 Equivalent Substitution, 352 Monobasic Acids, and Substitution by Residues, ... 353 Sesqui-salts, Direct Union, 354 Isomerism, . . 354 On the Density of Vapors, 355 Analysis of Organic Substances, . . 357 Organic Compounds and Products of their Alteration, ... 362

Ammonia,

Amides, ... 363 The Group of Alcohols,

Alcohol, ... 364 Sulphur Alcohol, . 366 Action of Acids upon Alcohol, . . .366 Coupled Acids, . . 367 Nitric, Perchloric, Hydrochloric Ethers, . 368-69 Acetene, Nitric Acetene,

Sulphovinic Acid, 369-70 Carbovinic Acid, . 370 Silicic Ethers, Products of the decomposition of Sulphovinic Acid, 371 Sulphuric Ether, Letheon, 372 defiant Gas, . . 373

CONTENTS.

X\

PAGE

Dutch Oil, . . 374

Products of the Oxyda-

tion of Alcohol, . 375 Acetic Acid, . . 376 Acetates, . . 377

Acetates of Lead, . 378 Wood-Spirit, or Methylic

Methylic Ethers, &c, 381 Oxydation of Wood-Spirit, 382 Formic Acid, . . 383 Amylic Alcohol, . 383

Amylic Ethers, . . 384 Oxydation of Amylic Acid, 385 Ethal and Ethalic Acid, 385-6 On the Relations of the preceding Bodies, . 387 • Bitter Almond Oil, Ben-

zoilol, . . .388 Benzamide, Hydrobenza-

mide, . . .389 Benzoine, Benzene, Nitrobenzene, . . 390 Oil of Cumin, . . 390 Oil of Spirea, . . 391 Salicylol, Salicylic Acid, 391 Phenol, Oil of Cinnamon, 393 Sugar, Starch, and Allied Substances, . . 394 Products of the decomposition of the Sugars, 395 The Vinous Fermentation, 395 Lactic Acid, . . 396 Starch, ... 398 Dextrine, '. . .399 Woody Fibre, . . 400 Xyloidine, Gun Cotton,

Pyroxyline, . . 401 Transformation of Woody Fibre, Destructive Distillation of Wood, . 403 Kreasote, Paraffine, Coal

Fats and the Substances derived FROM THEM, . 405

Soaps, Glycerides, Acroleine, . . . 406

Butyric Acid, Butyric Ether, . . .407

Margarine, Stearine, Oleine, . . . 409

Fatty Acids, Oleic Acid, Soaps, Vegetable Acids, .

Oxalic Acid, Oxalate of Lime, Tartaric Acid, .

Racemic, Malic, Citric,

Tannic, Tannin, Gallic Acid,

PAGE

Juniper, Pepper, Lemon,

Camphor, Borneo Camphor, Oil of Mustard, 420 Caoutchouc, Gum-Elastic, 420 Gutta Percha, . . 421 Coloring Matters, . 421

Quercitrine, Carthamine,

Turmeric, . . 422 Hematoxyline, Carmine, Chlorophyle, Lecanorine, Orcine, . . 422 Indigo, ... 423 Indigogene, Sulphindigotic

Acid, Saxon Blue, . 424 Isatine, Chlorisatine, . 425 Isatyde, Indine, Anilic

Chloranile, . . 426

Organic Bases, or Alkaloids.

Constitution and characters 426 Anilene, Chloranilene, Ni-

tramline, . . 427 Quinoline, Nicotine, Conine, Amarine, . 428 Cinchonine, . . 428 Morphine, Codeine, Nar-

cotine, . . . 429 Strychnine, Brucine, So-

lanine, Veratrine, . 430 Aconitine, Sanguinarine, Theine, Caffeine, Theobromine, . . 431 Other Vegetable Principles.

Amygdaline, Asparagine, 432 Salicine, Saligenine, Sali-

retine, . . .433 Helicine, Phloridzine, 434

XII

CONTENTS.

PAGE

The Cyan ids, and the Compounds DERIVED FROM THEM.

Hydrocyanic Acid, . 435 Cyanid of Potassium, . 436 Cyanogen, . . . 437 Cyanates, Cyanate of Potash, . . .438 Urea, ... 439

Sulphocyanates, Mellon, 440 Melan, . . .440 Results of the Complication of the Cyanids, 441 Cyanuric Acid, Melanine,441 Ammeline, Ammelide, 442 Complex Cyanids, Ferrocyanids, Yellow Prussiate of Potash, . 442 Ferro-cyanic Acid, Prussian Blue, Ferridcyanid of Potassium, . 444

Ferridcyanic Acid, . 445 Platino-cyanids, . . 445 Fulminates, Fulminate of Mercury, do. Silver, 446 Alcarsine, and the Bodies derived from it.

Alcarsine, Chlorarsine, 447 Kakodyle, Alcargene, 448 Uric Acid, and the Products .of its Decomposition, .... 448 Allantoine, Alloxan, Al-

loxantine, . . 449 Uramile, Murexide, Para-

banic Acid, . . 450 Oxaluric Acid, . . 451 Hippuric Acid, . . 451 Glycocoll, Gelatine Sugar, Relations of Glycocoll and Alcargene, 452 Nutritive Substances Containing Nitrogen, . 452

PASS

Vegetable Albumen, Fi-

brine, Caseine, &c. 452 Bread, Yeast, Animal Albumen, Fibrine,Caseine 453 Proteine, . . . 454 Gelatine, Chondrine, . 455

The Blood. — Red Globules, Hematine, Arterial Blood, 456 Chyle, ... 457

The Gastric Juice, . 457 Pepsine, the Saliva, . 458

The Bile Cholesterine, 458

Choleic Acid and Choleate of Soda, . . 458

The Urine, . . .459 Calculi, . . .460

The Brain and Nervous Matter, .... 460 Cerebric and Oleo-phosphoric Acids, . 460

Milk and Bones, . . 460 Analysis of Bones, . 461

Nutrition of Plants and Animals, . . . 462 The Food of Plants, . 462 Cellular Tissue, . . 463 Evolution of Oxygen, . 463 Soils, Inorganic Constituents oT Plants, . 463 Action of Humus, . 464 Growth of Air Plants, 464 Fertilizers, Ammonia, Guano, . . . 465 The Digestive Function, 465 Assimilation of Fats, . 466 Waste of Tissues, . 466 Objects of Respiration, 467 Uses of Oxygen, . 467 Vital Heat, . . 467 Balance of Organic Nature, . . . 468

FIKST PKINCIPLES

OF

CHEMISTRY.