The natural history of the Christian religion; being a study of the doctrine of Jesus as developed from Judaism and converted into dogma

Preface

The attempt made in this volume to trace the origin of Christianity to the common religious instinct, working under the influence of natural forces and amid historical conditions, is not the first of the kind which has been made, and probably, or rather certainly, will not be the last. When, in accordance with the demands of modern science, the supernatural element is rejected, a problem is presented to the theologian which cannot be put aside — which urgently demands attention. For Christianity is there, a great historical fact, in its origin the most epoch-making which the world has seen ; a fact, therefore, which must be accounted for, one way or another, by the way of natural development, if not by the way of the supernatural. Attempts in this direction, made at a time previous to the rise of what is called " modern criticism," could only be partially, if at all, successful. The volume which is here placed before the public could not possibly have been written until the new criticism had so far done its work, and may be regarded as an outcome of that great movement. In saying this, however, the writer is of course aware that the materials for such a work are scattered everywhere in abundance, not only in books devoted to theological criticism, but also in the great body of general literature.

In recent years many well-known works bearing on the natural origin and verity of the Christian religion have appeared in this country and on the continent. Of these the most

VI* PREFACE.

recent, so far as known to the writer, is the notable and masterly work of Professor Edward Caird on The Evolution of Religion, published after the present volume was all but ready for the press. Being thus nearly related in point of time, the two books might be expected to exhibit phases or sections, more or less allied, of present-day theological thought. But it will be found that between the two there is no affinity, except, perhaps in the general result, so that theologically they neither admit of comparison nor lend support, unless it be undesignedly, to each other. In dealing with the religious problem, they proceed upon independent lines, and follow a quite different mode of treatment. For, while Professor Caird's mode is mainly, if not wholly, speculative and philosophical, that here adopted is mainly, or rather wholly, critical and historical ; the history, be it observed, being such as is arrived at by submitting the canonical records to the ordeal and sifting of modern criticism ; these, in fact, being the only two modes in which the question can be approached.

With consummate literary skill, and a perfect command of philosophic thought and idiom, Professor Caird seeks to show that the simple teaching, the intuitive utterances of Jesus commend themselves to, and coincide with the profoundest moral views of modern philosophy. Now this fact (admitting it to be a fact) is deeply interesting, and cannot but be very satisfactory to every thoughtful Christian ; for it affords as high a confirmation as can be expected of the substantial truth of our religion. But even if so, the question still remains, " How did the ideas of Jesus arise and evolve themselves in his mind ? How did he advance beyond the wisdom of the ancients, Jew and Gentile?" Or, to put it differently, " How did he anticipate or discount the highest flights of modern thought ? " Plainly it could not be by any form or faculty of mysticism, for which, as Professor Caird incidentally remarks, the large claim has been made, that " it is the great means whereby a religious principle supple-

PREFACE. VI 1

ments the defects of its own imperfect development, or anticipates the results of a more advanced stage than it has yet attained." For, even if this questionable claim be allowed, no tendency to mysticism is at all discernible in the teaching of Jesus. Was it then, as some will say, by supernatural illumination that Jesus rose to that height ? or was it rather by the reaction of his mind upon the inherited and environing conditions, social and spiritual, peculiar to Judea in his day ? The latter is the alternative which this volume has been written to establish.

W. M.

Note. — The effect of the anti- supernatural theory of divine action upon the orthodox dogma is summarily and somewhat abruptly indicated in the beginning of the third chapter of this book ; and should the reader wish to see a more detailed and qualified statement on this pointy he may be referred to the Appendix, which may best be read immediately after Chapter second.

Contents

Preface, pp. v-vii.

CHAPTER I. Introductory, pp. r-18

The theological situation — Object of this book — Natural origin of Christianity — Successive stages of religious development — Miraculous element imaginary — Ultimate object of the "higher criticism" — The mythicizing tendency — Anti- supernatural theory of the universe — Method of procedure — Necessity for a fresh statement of critical results — Weakness and inconsistency of the Protestant position — Alliance of the churches against scepticism — No middle way.

CHAPTER II. Theory of Anti-supernaturalism, - - - pp. 19-55

Prehistoric period of Christianity — Basis of negative and positive criticism — Impossibility of miracle — Various views on the subject — Newman — Kuenen and Huxley — Duke of Argyll — Archdeacon Wilson — The supernatural inconsistent with the idea of development — Scientific theory of the divine action — The human element — Two objections to the scientific theory — Statement of the anti-supernatural position — Further discussion of the second objection — Introduction of Christianity not a breach of continuity — No new element added to human nature — The phenomena no exception to common law of the universe — Tendency to trace religious revolutions to the direct action of the divine power — Hesitating statements of many writers — Difficulty of removing supernatural element from evangelical narrative — Free treatment of records necessary — Conjectural element — How far legitimate — Historical value of the Gospels.

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III. Jesus simply a Teacher, pp. 56-83

Consequences of the anti-supernatural theory — Jesus simply a teacher, but in the widest sense— Regarded by the Church as a Redeemer— This idea at variance with his teaching — Exceptional utterances — No supernatural inspiration — Jesus made no claim to such — His teaching appealed to moral nature of man — His relation to his age — His genius — His teaching practical, not speculative — Relation of religion to philosophy and to science — Doctrine of Jesus autosoteric — Came not to destroy, but to fulfil.

Chapter IV

Rise and Growth in Israel of Idea of Kingdom of God, pp. 84-132.

Relation of Christianity to Judaism — The Exodus — Israel's adoption — Mythical element in the history — The Mosaic law — Idea of the covenant — Hopes of the nation — The prophets — Their adaptation of legend and chronicle — Their principles — Their method — The Messianic prophecies — Prophetic interpretation of the national calamities — Opposition of the prophets to polytheism — Their attitude towards ritual — Their conception of moral government — Their hopes for the future — The idea of a Messiah — Idea of Son of God — Idea of suffering servant of God — Influence upon religion of the Messianic hope — The exile — The Levitical code — Its influence upon religion and national life — The book of Daniel — The Pharisees — Development of theological thought in Israel — Idea of immortality.

Chapter V

Transformation of this Idea by Jesus, - - - pp. 133-157.

Barrenness of the four centuries preceding Jesus — Religious thought paralysed by idea of visible Kingdom of God— John the Baptist— Contrast between ideas of Kingdom of God held by John and by Jesus- Novelty of the idea taught by Jesus — Far-reaching nature of his doctrine —Its relation to the religion of Israel— The necessity of self help- Help from without not excluded — The forgiveness of sins— Autosoteric nature of his doctrine— His attitude to the Messianic idea— The central truth of Christianity.

CHAPTER VI. Legal or Pharisaic Idea of Righteousness and of the

Religious Relation, - - - . . . - pp. 158-173.

Tendency to formalism in religion of Israel — Reaction of Jesus against doctrine of Pharisees— The Essenes— Jerusalem the head-

CONTENTS. xi

quarters of Pharisaism — Minute regulation of Pharisaic life — Tendency to encourage hypocrisy — Tendency to multiply ceremonies — Rise of learned castes — Absence of sympathy and charity — Exaltation of external conformity — Pharisaic view of the Sinaitic covenant.

Chapter VII

Evangelic Idea as Taught by Jesus, - - - - pp. 174-214.

Righteousness of the heart — Originality of this idea — Symmetry of doctrine of Jesus — His moral courage — His ideal of humanity — His conception of the divine character — Source of his religious insight — Avenue by which he may have reached his conception of divine love and forgiveness — His conclusions verifiable by others — His soteriological doctrine the new element introduced into religion — Renovating power of his gospel — Necessity of the new ideal of humanity and the new conception of God — Doctrine of divine fatherhood distinctive of teaching of Jesus — Independent of Greek philosophy — Self-originating character of divine love — Influence of this idea upon spiritual nature of man — Absence of dogmatic element from teaching of Jesus — Educative influence of belief in divine forgiveness — Restatement of the distinctive feature of doctrine of Jesus — Dependence of Christian ethics upon new view of religious relation.

Chapter VIII

HOW FAR THE DOCTRINE OF JESUS WAS ORIGINAL,- - pp. 2 1 5-225.

Minor importance of this question — Comparison of Jesus with his predecessors — Doctrine to be regarded as a whole — Originality only relative— Recognition of latent elements — Result of his personal genius working on prophetic lines — Possible connection with the Essenes — His superiority to the prophets.

Chapter IX

That Jesus Claimed to be the Messiah, - - - pp. 226-246.

Relation of the Messianic hope to the new religion — Early uncertainty of Jesus as to his own Messiahship — His doctrine independent of Messianic ideas — Beginnings of his Messianic consciousness — The outer warrant — Suspense and hesitation — Declaration of Peter at Cassarea Philippi — Its effect upon the mind of Jesus — Difficulties involved in the denial of the Messianic consciousness of Jesus — Development of that consciousness — Confidence in his own doctrine — Perception of his spiritual superiority— Assumption of the Messianic role— Influence of the belief in his Messiahship upon his disciples — Origin and growth of this belief— Reciprocity between Jesus and his disciples.

xii CONTENTS.

Chapter X

His Journey to Jerusalem and his Death there, - pp. 247-256.

Reasons for the journey — Effect of his appearance upon the priests and Pharisees — His mental attitude in presence of danger— His own conception of the influence of his death — Sublimity of his heroism.

CHAPTER XI. The Christophanies, pp. 257-297

Shock to the disciples of the crucifixion — Their rally — Orthodox explanation — Objections — Manifestation only to a few — Discrepancy of the narratives — Uncritical attitude of early Church — Self-contradictory conception of the risen body — Resurrection not necessary to vindicate God's supremacy — Faith of the early Church must be accounted for — Suggested explanations and objections to them — The Vision-Theory — Reasons for its rejection — Involves an expectation of his resurrection — Its frequent occurrence and sudden cessation — The 500 brethren — Vision-Theory does not necessarily invalidate the Christian faith — But belief in the resurrection explained apart from the Vision-Theory — Detailed consideration of the mental condition of the disciples — Revival of their faith in Jesus — Clearer perception of his Messiahship — Sentiment of adoration — Conviction of his imperishable life — Feeling of his spiritual presence — Expression of this feeling in language of the senses — This explanation not open to objections to Vision-Theory — Comparison of Galilean brethren with Greeks at Mykale — Literal interpretation of their figurative language — Conformity with Jewish ideas of the Messiah.

CHAPTER XII. Mythical Transformation of Evangelic Tradition, pp. 298-328

Impulse given to the mythicizing tendency by the belief in the resurrection — Exaltation of the life of Jesus — Supernatural elements introduced — Analogous cases — Question of time — Growth of myth — Materials — Objections to the mythical theory — Desire to strengthen the authority of Jesus — External and internal evidences of Christianity — Desire to certify religious doctrines — All discussion suppressed in early Church — Parallel with other religions — Mythical tendency at work during life of Jesus — Absence of any central authority — Both gain and loss in admission of supernatural element — Belief in the second advent — Origin of this belief — Its influence — Summary of the tendencies which promoted the mythical process — Not specially a legend-loving age — Mythical process filled in details of life of Jesus — Educative value of the myth.

CONTENTS. Xlll

CHAPTER XIII. Relation of Myth to Dogma, pp. 329-340

Sense in which Jesus fulfilled the prophets — The ideal Israelite- Identification with Jesus — The dogmatic process — Relation of -myth to dogma — Relation of dogma of Paul to doctrine of Jesus — Conversion rather than development — No dogma in Old Testament or in synoptic Gospels — Its origin in mind of Paul — His probable collaborateurs — His defects — His genius — His service to Christianity — Functions of myth and dogma.

Chapter XIV

Conversion of St. Paul, - pp. 341-367.

Importance of Paul's influence upon Christianity — Causes of his conversion— His own view — His previous religious experience — Effect of contact with disciples of Jesus — His mental conflict — His apprehension of the doctrine of Jesus — Association of his new view with the person of Jesus — His vision — His conversion sudden only in appearance — His perception of the universality of Christianity — Anticipated by Stephen — Universalism of Christianity not derived from universalism of Roman Empire — This element inherent in doctrine of Jesus — Different views on this subject — Paul's conversion a perfectly natural phenomenon — Distinction between the alleged visions of the disciples and that of Paul — Value of his testimony as to the others — Distinction between the spiritual experience of Paul and that of the first disciples.

Chapter XV

His Doctrine of Atonement by the Death of Jesus, pp. 368-412.

Paul's Pharisaism — Effect upon his mind of the new doctrine — Sense of personal obligation to Jesus — Difficulty of reconciling the death of Jesus with his Messiahship — Idea of atonement — Relation between doctrine of Jesus and that of Paul — Paul's knowledge of the facts of Jesus' life — His apparent inconsistency — His exaltation of the death of Jesus — Need for a sensuous representation of a spiritual truth — Conversion of the autosoteric into a heterosoteric process — Influences tending to this — Paul's declension from the doctrine of Jesus— Pedagogic value of Paul's dogma — Its anti-legal spirit — Atonement the central principle of the dogma — Its relation to modern ideas — Its particularism — Distinction between the religion of Jesus and the Christian religion — Confusion in Paul's scheme of doctrine — Hellenistic and Jewish ideas — How far the former influenced Christianity.

xiv CONTENTS.

Chapter XVI

Pauline Dogma as Involved in that of Atonement, pp. 413-440.

Doctrine of atonement involves superhuman nature of the Messiah — Ascent to the idea of his divinity — Motive principle of the dogmatic development — Pauline anthropology — Literal meaning of Paul's language — His soteriological doctrine — Justification by faith — Criticism of the doctrine — Paul's modifications of it — Difficulty of defining the relation between the Law and the Gospel— Paul's responsibility for Antinomianism — Dissatisfaction with his own dogmatic system — Final view of the relation between Jesus and Paul — Practical influence of the Pauline dogma.

CHAPTER XVII. Conflict between Jewish and Gentile Christianity, pp. 441-464

Opposition to the Pauline dogma — Jewish and Gentile Christians — Points of agreement and of difference — Difference in the spiritual experience of Paul and of the other Apostles — Difference between his and their views of the atonement — His conception of Christian liberty — Exclusiveness and intolerance of the Jewish Christians — Dissensions in the Church — Vacillation of Peter — Paul's rabbinical use of the Old Testament — Epistle to the Hebrews — Distinction between Paul's view and that of the author of that epistle — Inconclusiveness of both their arguments — Schism averted — Irenical tendency in books of New Testament — Mutual concessions — Substantial triumph of Paulinism.

CHAPTER XVIII. Post-Pauline or Gnostic Period, pp. 465-490

Rise of Gnosticism — Dualistic theory of the universe — Its tendency to foster both asceticism and licentiousness — The deutero-Pauline epistles — Their modification of Paul's doctrine of justification by faith alone — Gnosticism partly an exaggerated reaction against Judaism — Development of the Pauline Christology — Gentile tendency to polytheism — Revival of dasmonism among Gentile Christians — Derogatory views of the person and work of Christ — Christianity removed from the practical into the speculative sphere — Gnosticism partly an exaggerated development of Pauline ideas — Reaction against Gnosticism — Relation between pre-Christian Hellenism and deutero-Paulinism — How far the deutero-Pauline epistles were intentionally anti-Gnostic.

CHAPTER XIX. The Fourth Gospel, pp. 491-577

Relation of the fourth Gospel to the Gnostic heresy — Two main theories as to date and authorship of the Gospel — Internal and external

CONTENTS. XV

evidence — Self- referent character of the discourses of Jesus as given in the fourth Gospel — Identification of Christ with the Logos — Opposition of the Jewish Christians to the doctrine of the divinity of Jesus — Attempt of the fourth Evangelist to solve the Gnostic problem— His combination of Pauline Christology with the Gnostic doctrine of the Logos — Other traces of Hellenistic influence in the fourth Gospel — Difference between the Alexandrian doctrine of the Logos and that of the fourth Evangelist — Use of the word Logos in the Apocalypse — Its use in pre-Christian Jewish literature — How far the Logos of the fourth Gospel is derived from that of Philo — Development of the Paulinistic Christology into that of the fourth Gospel — Necessity felt by the Evangelist for a new gospel — His motives in composing it — Unhistorical character of the fourth Gospel — Its attempt to supply the deficiencies of the others — Its treatment of the miracles and discourses of Jesus — Considerations which might make such procedure seem justifiable to the author — His idealization of the person of Christ — The self-testimony which he makes Jesus bear — No trace in the fourth Gospel of any growth in the consciousness of Jesus — The miracle at Bethany — The cleansing of the temple — Date of the crucifixion — Indifference of the Church to all discrepancies — Uncritical reception of the fourth Gospel — Artistic realism of the work — Other circumstances tending to secure its reception as genuine — Anonymity of the work — Genius of the author — His universalism — Influence of the fourth Gospel upon the Church — Doctrine of the Holy Spirit

CHAPTER XX. Conclusion, pp. 578-589

Further development of Christian doctrine — Difference between Pauline and Scholastic dogma — Analogy between the histories of Christianity and of Islam — Treatment which has been given to the historical data — In what sense Christianity is of divine origin — Justification of the attempt to present an anti-supernatural explanation of Christianity.

Appendix

Application of the Theory of Anti-Supernaturalism

to the Christian Dogma, - - - - - - pp. 590-607.

The anti-supernatural theory involves the rejection of the cardinal Christian dogmas — Jesus only a man — His sinlessness only relative — He had no miraculous powers — Explanation of his " moral therapeutic " — His alleged prophetic utterances — His alleged resurrection— Question of immortality.

Chapter I. Introductory

In the agitated and uneasy state of theological opinion, which has prevailed during a great part of this century, the revered ideas and traditions of the past have been thrown into the crucible to be recast, or have been submitted to tests previously unthought of. In view of this fact the question is often asked, "What does it all mean? To what is it all tending?" As the tendency of modern criticism is to reduce, or entirely to get rid of the supernatural element of Christianity, this vague question, expressive of general bewilderment, may be translated into another and more specific question, viz., Whether Christianity can be accounted for on the supposition that there is no such element in it ? In this latter and more specific form, this question is undoubtedly the most urgent in the whole field of present day theology ; and it is manifest that, to be of any scientific or other value, negative or positive, any attempt to answer it, such as is to be made in this volume, must be thorough, i.e., it must do full justice to the supposition from which it starts, and carry out that supposition to its consequences without faltering or reserve.

So conducted, the discussion may have one of two results — either it may discredit the supernatural theory of Christianity, or it may go far, in the way of a reductio ad absurdum, to demonstrate the untenableness of the anti-supernatural theory. Each reader will have to judge for himself, according to the impression made by the discussion upon his mind, to which of these alternatives it has led him. In any case it will do somewhat to put the latter theory to the touch, and bring the reader face to face with difficulties which, by being evaded or kept in the background of thought, produce an uneasiness and perplexity that distract the mind of the Church, and go far to shake the authority of Christianity and to impair its influence.

The writer is persuaded that the prevalent drift toward anti-supernaturalism can never be arrested until the case for it is fully and fairly stated, and is found to break down. The wriggling efforts of the usual apologetic sort to arrest or retard this drift will continue, as heretofore, to be unavailing. It may indeed be that the case for anti-supernaturalism, so far from breaking down, may prove to be good and valid. But even should it be so, the Churches may be expected to look upon the discussion with candour, and even with favour, provided it be also found, that, discharged of the supernatural element, Christianity may yet remain a valuable possession of humanity, a religion fitted to guide and allure men to the higher life. To arrive at such a result, would, it will be confessed, be an immense relief to all who have the interests of religion at heart, and are able to form an intelligent estimate of the modern phase of the religious problem.

It is not, of course, in the power of the author, to limit the circle of his readers, but he may be permitted to say, that this volume is not intended for those who find support for their spiritual life in any of the popular orthodox forms of Christianity. Nothing can be further from his intention than to unsettle the beliefs of those who can honestly make this avowal. He would even deprecate its perusal by any such. But some risk of this kind must be run, unless we choose to proceed upon the maxim (acted on by orthodox Mahometans, as well as by orthodox Christians, and, indeed, by the orthodox of all denominations) of abstaining from every attempt to revise the doctrines which have come down to us as a heritage from our forefathers.

The volume has been written partly for the comparatively few who take an abstract interest in the ascertainment of truth in the religious sphere, but chiefly for the many whose belief in Christianity, by contact with the inquiring or sceptical spirit of the age, is already unsettled, and who find, in their quest of a religion, that the antagonism, real or apparent, between science and the orthodox forms of Christianity makes it impossible for them to be satisfied with any of these.

The pale of orthodoxy may fairly be held to include all professors of Christianity who accept of its miraculous elements, or regard the New Testament in part, or in whole, as a specially inspired volume. At the present day, the confessional differences between the various sects go for very little, and have little or no significance for the spiritual life. The insistence upon these differences is chiefly calculated to perpetuate the existence of rival organizations ; to maintain the status quo in the relative strength and distribution of the sects ; and to delay for another generation the impending crash of the several dogmatic systems, by which the mind of Christendom has been dominated for so many ages.

More than a century has elapsed, since one of the leading spirits of the time, a devout believer in the miraculous nature of Christianity (Dr. Johnson), gave it as his opinion that "all Christians, whether Papists or Protestants, agree in the essential articles, and that their differences are trivial, and rather political than religious." Few at that time shared in a sentiment so candid and sensible. But in the interval, the thoughts of men have widened and advanced so far, that now there are multitudes in the leisured and better educated classes throughout Christendom who are wholly unable to accept of Christianity as a supernatural system. Of these, . many have entirely renounced the Christian profession. But others, and perhaps the much greater number, claim to be Christians still, because they feel that the orthodox form of Christianity is an accident, and that Christianity is identified with a profound truth, more or less underlying all the creeds, which appeals to man's inmost nature and supplies the necessary aliment to his spiritual life. And though the immediate object of this volume is not so much to prove the truth of Christianity, or to indicate wherein its essential truth lies, as rather, to trace its historical genesis, yet the writer is persuaded that its essential truth will best appear, incidentally or inferentially, in the course of such an inquiry.

The title of the volume will suffice to show that it is written on the lines of the great critical movement which has gone on in theology for the greater part of this century, and that it will be largely negative in its scope. At the same time, the writer wishes it to be understood from the first that, by intention at least, the volume is constructive, and, in the larger sense of the word, even apologetic. This will be readily recognized by some, if not by all, of its readers. Indeed, had the views of the writer been merely negative, offering nothing in place of what was removed or discarded, he would have hesitated to lay them before the public. But he is encouraged to do so because he believes that, by abandoning indefensible positions, and, in particular, by dissolving the connection of Christianity with miracle of every kind, it may be made to present a stronger front to the world ; that when this just cause of offence is removed, the intellect, which has been stigmatized as a " universal solvent," will cease to be aggressive and capricious and become friendly in its attitude.

With this conviction he will attempt to show that Christianity took its rise in a great spiritual and religious movement among the Jewish people, or in a great transformation of Jewish ideas effected by Jesus, and spreading from him to his disciples ; and to find in that movement and in certain favouring circumstances and historical conditions, without looking beyond to any supernatural or transcendental causes, an explanation of the whole relative phenomena. He will treat Christianity as an outgrowth of the human mind, and, therefore, as in no sense miraculous, but yet as a revelation of the divine in so far as it has brought to light the true secret, the idea, and the goal of humanity. He believes Christianity to have been founded, proximately, in the great religious experience which befell Jesus in its purest form, and was reflected in his life and teaching. He believes that that experience was transmitted and propagated to the minds of his disciples, not, however, in its pure and original form, but through the medium of the impression made by the personality of Jesus on their emotional nature ; and that that impression, acting on their imaginative and ratiocinative faculties, was what gave to Christianity the mythical and dogmatic construction which is presented to us in the New Testament and in the creeds of the Churches.

There are three propositions, the truth of which will be made to appear in the following pages. First, that Judaism and Christianity denote the successive stages of one long evolution of religious thought and sentiment. The underlying fact of a grand religious movement is the key to the whole following discussion, a fact without which the literature and history of Israel and of the early Church would be an insoluble enigma, a fortuitous development. Secondly, that the phases of this long evolution in its decisive moments have been largely recorded in the form of myth and dogma, so that a miraculous aspect has been imparted to the evolution, which in itself went on naturally and rationally, or according to the laws of our spiritual and social nature. And, thirdly, that the myth and dogma have mingled as important factors in the evolution itself.

By the first of these propositions it is not meant that the evolution dates its origin from Judaism, but rather that it reaches back to a long anterior time. Few great thoughts which have dawned upon the minds of men have been lost ; and the salvage of one religion in its decay and senescence may have formed the stock with which another has started on its course and entered upon its new career. If it be the case, and no one can doubt it, that Christianity was rooted in the religion of Israel, and was the heir of all that was best in it, there is little less certainty, though it has been disputed, that the religion of Israel was under deep obligations to that of Egypt, that is, to the most ancient civilization of the world ; so that the religious development, which has culminated in Christianity, was coeval in its origin with the earliest dawn of intelligence. The evolution of the religious principle has had as many illustrations as there have been historical religions in the world. Theologians have undertaken to trace the origin and growth of religion as illustrated by that of ancient Egypt, of China, of India, of Scandinavia, and even of Mexico and Peru. But it may be remarked generally that in all these cases the evolution turned aside into a terminal, or stopped short of the higher reaches of religious thought. There was much common to all of them with Judaism and Christianity, but it admits of being said, with every appearance of truth, that these latter began where those others left off. And the higher development in the exceptional cases of Judaism and Christianity was probably due to a new ethical impulse, which gave them a fresh start. The predominance of the ethical element kept them upon the right line of development, or enabled them to regain the line after every temporary divergence. Thus it was that Christianity arose by the self-assertion of the moral nature in Jesus, and that the Reformation of the sixteenth century was due to a similar cause in the mind of Luther and his predecessors.