The era of the Protestant revolution

Front matter

Glass J Book

V.

THE COMMERCE OF CHRISTENDOM

CHAPTER I. Introductory

PACtK

(a) The Small Extent of Christe?idom. — Smaller than it once had been. The Mohammedan power checked in the West, but encroaching from the East. Kinship between Christians, Mohammedans, and Jews, but they hate one another i

(b) The Signs of NeiuEife in Christendom. — Influence of the Crusades. Inventions. Fall of Constantinople. Revival of learning. Printing 3

c) The Widening of Christendom. — Moors driven out of Spain. Discovery of America. New way to East Indies. Men's minds prepared for great events 4

id) '1 he New Era one of Progress in~Civilisation. — What civilisation is. The old Roman civilisation. Its main vice. Modern civilisation. Its strength. The crisis of the struggle between the old and the new order of things. Plan of this book . . . .5

- CHAPTER II.

THE POWERS BELONGING TO THE OLD ORDER OF THINGS, AND GOING OUT.

(a) The Ecclesiastical System. — The Ecclesiastical Empire. Rome its capital. Independent of the civil power. The monks. Power of the ecclesiastical system, by its influence over the people, by its wealth, by the., monopoly of learning and political influence, which all centred in Rome. This Empire will be broken up in the Era . . 8

(&) The Scholastic System. — The learned world talked and wrote in Latin, and belonged to the clergy. This made learning scholastic, shackled science, and religion also, and kept them from the common people. Necessity of mental freedom. The Universities. Students pass from one to another. The result of this in the days of Wiclif. Will be repeated in the new Era. The work of the Era . .11 vi Summary.

AGE

(c) The Feuctal System and the Forces which were breaking it iip. — It divided countries into petty lordships. Decay of the feudal system. Subjection of feudal lords to the Crown. Increasing power of the Crown. The growth of commerce. Trade of the Mediterranean. The manufacturing districts. The fisheries. The commerce of the Hanse towns. Bruges and Antwerp the central marts of commerce. Lines of maritime, inland, and overland trade. The towns had mostly got free. Why the towns hated feudalism and favoured the Crown. The feudal peasantry once were more free than afterwards under the feudal system. Where the central power was weakest, feudal serfdom lingered longest. The towns and commerce favoured freedom of the peasantry 15

Chapter III. The Modern Nations Which Were Rising Into Power

(a) Italy. — Italy not a united nation. Rome, according to Machiavelli, the cause of her disunity. Rome a centre of rottenness. Dante and Petrarch described her vices. Recent Popes bad men. Alexander VI. and Caesar Borgia. Their crimes. Effect of Papal wickedness. Main divisions of Italy. Papal States. Venice. .Florence. Milan. Naples. Papal politics the ruin of Italy by pro- 'moting invasion by France and Spain _ . . .

(b) Germany. — Germany had not yet attained national unity. _ The

emperor claimed to be Caesar and King of Rome. His claim to universal empire very shadowy. How elected. The feudal ceremony. There were no imperial domains. Very little imperial power. The Emperor Maximilian powerful as head of the Austrian House of Hapsburg. Charles V. powerful because of his Austrian and Spanish dominions. The Diets had no power to enforce their decrees. The feudal system still prevailed. Subdivision of lordships by law of inheritance. Constant petty feuds. Lawlessness of the knights. The towns of Germany. Their leagues for mutual defence. Want of a central power to maintain the public peace. The condition of the peasantry growing harder and harder for want of a central power. History of the German ' Bauer.' Rebellion his only remedy

(c) Spain. — Spain was becoming the first power in Europe. Power of

the nobles. Driven into the north by the Moors. Reconquest of Spain from the Moors, except Granada which held out. Kingdoms of Castile and Arragon united under Ferdinand and Isabella. Spain thenceforth tends to become an absolute monarchy. Conquest of Granada. Ferdinand's policy to complete Spain on the map. Columbus. Foreign policy. Royal marriages. Success of these alliances. Domestic policy. Subjugation of the nobles. The Inquisition. Banishment of the Jews. Independent policy towards Rome. Colonial policy. Christianity introduced into the New World, but slavery with it ; . .

(d) France. — How all France had grown into one nation. France

claimed Milan, and Naples also. This union of all France the_ result of the Crown being hereditary, primogeniture, and intermarriage with the royal family. The towns. Final struggle of the Crown with Burgundy. English conquests at an end. The English wars had helped to unite the nation and increase the power of the Crown; but there were seeds of disunion within. The Crown had become

Summary. vii absolute. Royal taxes without consent of the people. Royal standing army. The noblesse a privileged untaxed caste. The peasantry not serfs, but taxed, paying rents, and tithes, and taille. Their grievances. The middle class leave the country for the towns. Separation of classes the main vice in French polity. Love of foreign wars the chief vice in her policy . . . . . .40

{e) England.— The English nation had for long been consolidated. The nobility not a caste. Importance of the middle classes of citizens and yeomen. The Crown and all classes subject to the laws. The government a constitutional monarchy, i.e. the king could make no new laws and levy no taxes without consent of parliament. The ecclesiastics not altogether Englishmen, but held large possessions. The Pope also drew revenues from England. The peasantry had got free from feudal servitude and were becoming a wage-earning class. Freedom did not necessarily make them materially better off. They had no share in the government, but there was nothing in the laws to prevent their getting it. Henry VII. was a Welshman, and landed in Wales. His throne precarious. Other claimants. Lambert Simnel. Perkin Warbeck. Henry VII.'s foreign policy was alliance with Spain. Hence the marriage with Catherine of Arragon. Henry VII.'s domestic policy. His position as regards Parliament. His minister, Cardinal Morton. Order maintained. Middle class favoured. The way paved for the union of England and Scotland. The Welsh finally conciliated, and England's colonial empire begun. The tomb of Henry VII 46

Chapter IV. The Need Of Reform And Danger Of Revolution

{a) The Necessity for Reform.— -Italy and Germany not yet united nations. The lack of international peace and justice. The serfdom of the German peasantry still continued. The_ ecclesiastical and scholastic systems needed reform. The alternatives were reform or revolution 55

ifi) The Train laid for R evolut ion.— Chiefly among the German peasantry. Their ecclesiastical as well as feudal grievances. Contemporary testimony. Successful rebellion of the Swiss in 1315, and the pea sants of the Graubund 1 441-71. Unsuccessful rebellion of the Lollards and Hussite wars 1415-1436. Threats of rebellion in Franconia in 1476. The Bundschtih. Rebellion in Kempten 1492. In Elsass 1493. Both again in 1501-2. In the Black Forest 1 512-13, under Joss Fritz. In 1514 in Wurtemberg and_the Austrian Alps. The Swabian leagueoTnobles against the peasants. Far and wide the train was laid for future revolution. The train laid not where serfdom was at its worst, but where freedom was nearest in sight . 57 v'm Summary.

Chapter I. Revival Of Learning And Reform At Florence

PAGE.

(a) The Revivers of Learning at Florence. — The Republic of Florence. Power in the hands of the Medici. Cosmo de' Medici 1389-1464. Lorenzo de' Medici 1448-1492. Florence the Modern Athens. Michael Angelo. The Platonic Academy, Ficino, Politian, and Pico della Mirandola. Semi-pagan tendencies of the revival of learning 66

(Jj) The great Florentine Reformer, Girolamo Savonarola, 1452-1498. — He becomes a religious reformer. Made Prior of St. Mark at Florence. Stirs up in the people the spirit of reform and freedom. Death of Lorenzo and Innocent VIII. The French Invasion of Italy. The Medici expelled. The republic restored. Savonarola's reforms. He becomes fanatical. Is martyred by order of Pope Alexander VI .69.

(r) Savonarola' s Influence on the Revivers of Learning. — His influence

over Pico, Politian, and Ficino . m z

(d) Niccolo Machiavelli, 1469-1527. — Secretary to the Republic at Florence, and then serves the Medici. Writes ' The Prince,' in which he codifies the vicious maxims of Italian policy since called ' Machiavellian' 73-

Chapter II. The Oxford Reformers

(a) The Spirit of Revival of Learning and Reform is carriea from Italy to Oxford. — Distinction and connection between the Revival of learning and Religious reform. Both against the Scholastic system. The reform movement crushed at Florence. Revivers of learning at Oxford. Grocyn and Linacre go to Italy, and return to Oxford. John Colet does the same (1485-1496) . . . .74.

{?>) Colet, More, and Erasmus Join in fellow-work. — Colet unites the spirit of the new learning and religious reform. Lectures on St. Paul's Epistles at Oxford. Attacks the schoolmen. He urges also the need of ecclesiastical reform. Colet attracts disciples and fellowworkers. Thomas More. Erasmus. Early life of Erasmus. He comes to Oxford. Makes friends with Colet and Thomas More. Comes under Colet's influence (1496-1500) 78 ;

(c) The Oxford Students are scattered till the Accession of Henry VIII. — Exactions of Empson and Dudley. More offends Henry VII. The circle of Oxford students formed again in London . . 80

id) On the accession of Henry VIII. they commence their fellow-work. Hopes on the accession of Henry VIII. The Oxford students in Court favour. Erasmus Greek professor at Cambridge (1509) . 81

(e) Erasmus writes his 'Praise of Folly.' — Satire on the scholastic

theologians, monks, and popes (151 1) .... .82

Summary. jx

PAGE

[f) Colet founds St. PauTs School — It is a school of the new learning, and excites the malice of men of the old school. His sermon on Ecclesiastical Reform. Escapes from a charge of heresy (1510) . 84

(g) The Continental Wars of Henry VIII., 1511-1512.— The Holy Alliance against France. Henry VIII.'s first campaign. Wolsey. Julius II. succeeded by Leo X. Henry persists in invading France. Gains the Battle of the Spurs. Scotch invasion of England. Battle of Flodden. Henry VIII. now joins France against Spain. Louis XII. succeeded by Francis I. Francis I. invades Italy and recovers Milan. Again Spain and_ England combine against France. These wars of kings against the interests of Europe, and tended to make kings absolute. The example of France. Narrow escape of England. Colet preaches against the wars. Erasmus is against them too, and also More ... 86

{h) The kind of Reform aimed at by the Oxford Reformers. — Erasmus made a Councillor of Prince Charles. More drawn into Henry VIII.'s service. The ' Christian Prince ' of Erasmus. More's • Utopia.' They entered thoroughly into the spirit of modern civilisation. The character of their religious reform. The New Testament of Erasmus (1516). .The kind of ecclesiastical reform urged by the Oxford Reformers} They aimed at a broad and tolerant Church, and were likely to oppose schism . . . .00

Chapter III. The Wittenberg Reformers

(a) Martin Ltdher becomes a Reformer. — Luther born 1483. Sent to school and to the University of Erfurt. Becomes a monk. Adopts the theology of St. Augustine, and in this differed from the Oxford Reformers. He removes to Wittenberg. Visits Rome. Reads the New Testament of Erasmus and finds out the difference in their theology (1483-15 16) . 94

(b) The sale of Indulgences. — Leo X.'s scheme to get money by indulgences. Offers princes a share in the spoil. Erasmus writes bitterly against it, but pope and kings will not listen (1517) . • -97

(c) Luther's Attack on Indulgences.— Tetzel comes near Wittenberg

selling indulgences. Luther's theses against indulgences. He is backed by the Elector of Saxony. Philip Melanchthon comes to Wittenberg (1517-1519) 98

(d) The Election of Charles V. to the Empire (1519).— Death of Maximilian. Candidates for the Empire. Charles V. elected through the influence of the Elector of Saxony. Extent of Charles V.'s rule . . . 100

(e) Luther s Breach with Rome. — Luther finds himself a Hussite.

Rumoured Papal Bull against Luther. Luther's pamphlet to the nobility of the German nation, and another on the ' Babylonish Captivity of the Church.' The Bull arrives (1520) 102

if) The Elector of Saxony consults Erasmus, Dec. 6, 1520. — Aleander, the Pope's nuncio, tries to win over the Elector of Saxony. The Elector asks advice of Erasmus. The advice of Erasmus. The Elector follows it, and urges moderation on Luther .... 105

(g) Luther hirns the Pope's Bull, Dec. 10, 1520, notwithstanding the

cautions of the Elector. Erasmus fears revolution . . . 107

Summary.

THE CRISIS. — REFORM OR REVOLUTION. — REFORM REFUSED BY THE RULING POWERS.

PAGE

(a) Ulrich von Hutten a7id Franz von Sickingen. — The Robin Hoods of Germany side with Luther. Ulrich von Hutten. His satire upon Rome. His German popular rhymes against Rome. Demands freedom from Rome. Small chances of Reform . . .109

(b) The Diet of Worms meets z%th Jamiary, 1521. — ' Agenda ' at the Diet of Worms : — to stop private war, to settle disputes, to provide central power in the Emperor's absence, and to take notice of the books of Martin Luther. No hope for the peasantry. Brief from Rome about Luther. The Electors hesitate to sanction the edict against Luther. Hutten adjures the Emperor not to yield to Rome. Luther summoned to Worms # . 112

(c) Luther's Jotimey to Worms (1521). Luther's Antithesis of Christ

and Antichrist. Luther sets off for Worms. His journey. Popular excitement. Luther's heroic firmness. He enters Worms . .116

(d) Luther before the Diet. — Luther's first appearance before the Diet.

He asks for time to consider his answer. They give him till the next day. Excitement in Worms. Luther's second appearance before.the Diet. His speech. Repeats his speech in Latin. Refuses to recant. The Emperor decides against Luther. Threats of Revolution. The Electors urge delay. Luther leaves Worms. What Luther did at Worms for Germany and for Christendom . 120

(e) Edict against Luther. — Fears of the papal party. Rumours of

Luther's capture. The Elector of Saxony leaves Worms. Treaty between Charles V. and the Pope. The Edict issued against Luther. Letter from Valdez, the Emperor's secretary . _. . . 125 {J) Political Reasons for the Decision at Worms. — Rivalship between Spain and France. Intrigues of princes. France the common enemy of the Pope, Spain, and England. Reform refused by the ruling powers from political motives 127

Chapter V. Revolution

(a) The Prophets of Revohdion.— Popular feeling against the Edict. Luther in the Wartburg. In his absence wilder spirits take the lead. The prophets of Zwickau. Luther comes back to Wittenberg and confronts the prophets. His common sense prevails. The prophets driven from Wittenberg. Miinzer becomes the prophet of the peasantry (1522) 131

(b) The End of Sickingen and Hutten.— The Council of Regency under the Elector of Saxony strives to avert the storm, but meets_ with opposition. Franz von Sickingen takes to the sword, but is defeated and killed. Hutten's death. The peasantry get nothing from the knights (1523) . 134

(c) The Peasants' War.— Carlstadt and_Munzer_ stir up rebellion. Insurrection of the peasantry in Swabia. Their twelve articles. Not likely to be granted by either Pope, nobles, or Luther. Swabian peasants crushed in April 1525. Insurrection on the Neckar, April 1525. The peasants' revenge for Swabian slaughters. The retaliation of the nobles, May 1525. Insurrection in Franconia. Revolution in the towns of Franconia. Diary of a citizen of Rothenburg.

Summary. xi

PAGE

' Insurrection in Elsass and Lorraine put down, May 1525. Insurrection in Bavaria, the Tyrol, and Carinthia. Miinzer heads an insurrection in Thuringia. His mad proclamation. Death of Miinzer. The attitude of Luther during the Peasants' War. Who was really to blame? Death of the Elector of Saxony, May 1525 . 136 (d) The Sack of Rome, 1527.— Alliance of the Pope and the Emperor against France. Henry VIII. joins it. Pope Leo X. dies, 1521. Adrian VI. and Clement VII. Pope, 1523. Duke of Bourbon joins the league against France. Francis I. crosses the Alps, but made prisoner at the battle of Pavia. Rupture between Charles V. and the Pope. Result of the Diet of Spires. March of a German army on Rome. The Sack of Rome. Result of the Papal policy . 149

Part III. Results Of The Protestant

REVOLUTION.

*

Chapter I. Revolts From Rome

I.) IN SWITZERLAND AND GERMANY.

(a) Meaning of Revolt from Rome.— A political change. The Teutonic nations revolted ; the Romanic nations remained under Rome. In some nations there was a national revolt ; in some divided action and civil wars r 5~

(b) The Revolt in Switzerland (1524-1531).— The Swiss cantons. Civil power vested in the people. Ulrich Zwingle, the Swiss reformer, settles at Zurich. Zurich assumes to itself ecclesiastical powers. Berne does the same soon after. Civil war. Peace of Cappel. Character of Zwingle. Luther quarrels with Zwingle . 159

(c) The Revolt in Germany (1526-1555).— The freedom of the peasantry

postponed for ten generations. The Diet of Spires, 1526, left each state to take its own course about Luther. Hence arose Protestant states, with national churches free from Rome, while others remained Catholic. The Second Diet of Spires, 1529, reversed the decision, notwithstanding the protest of the Protestant princes. Civd war averted by the Turks' attack on Vienna. The Turks driven back. Charles V. turned again upon German heretics. Diet of Augsburg. The ' Augsburg Confession.' Protestant princes form the league of Schmalkald for mutual defence. Civil war postponed during Luther's life, but it begins soon after his death. Spanish conquest of Germany. Revolt of the Protestant princes. Defeat of Charles V. ; his abdication and death. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) and its rule of mock toleration. Evils brought upon Germany by Charles V.'s policy . l6z xii Summary.

Chapter II. Revolt Of England From Rome

PAGE

(a) Its Political Character. — In England the revolt from Rome was

national and came at first from political causes .... 167

(l>) Reasons for Henry VIII.'s Loyalty to Rome. — Henry VIII. defends the divine authority of the Pope, and writes a book against Luther in r52i. He tells Sir Thomas More of a secret reason for it. Henry VIII.'s marriage with Catherine of Arragon. Secret doubts about its validity. Its unsatisfactory beginning. Its validity rested on the divine authority of the Pope. Henry VIII.'s anxiety about it and the succession. His anxiety to keep on good terms with the Pope and Charles V. Execution of the Duke of Buckingham for having his eye upon the succession to the throne (1521) . . . 167

(c) Sir Thomas More defends He7iry VIII. against Luther. — Effect of

the knowledge of Henry VIII.'s secret reasons on Sir Thomas More's mind. Reaction in the minds of Erasmus and More against Luther 171

(d) Reasons for Henry VIII.'s Change of Policy. — Wolsey the great war minister of Henry VIII. More opposed to the wars with France. Charles V.'s treachery, and the Pope's. Henry VIII.'s foreign policy all at sea again (1527)

(e) The Crisis. Henry VIII. determines iipon the Divorce from Catherine of Arragon. — Results of breach with Spain. Political reasons for the divorce from Catherine. Wolsey tries to get the Pope to grant a divorce, but fails. Henry VIII. takes the matter into his own hands (1527-1529) 175

\g) The Parliament of 1529-1536. Revolt of England from Rome. —

Sir Thomas More lord chancellor. Parliament of 1529 a crisis in English history, like the Diet of Worms in German history. Complaints against the clergy and ecclesiastical abuses. Wolsey's attempts at ecclesiastical reform under papal authority. The king and parliament now take up the matter. Petition of the Commons against ecclesiastical grievances. Practical reforms. The divorce question laid before the universities by Cranmer. Farther reforms. The king declared supreme head of the Church of England instead of the Pope. The king marries Anne Boleyn. The revolt of England from Rome is now completed . . . . . . 177

(h) Heresy still punished in England. — There had been no change of religious creed. Heretics still persecuted, and among them Tindal, the translator of the New Testament. Sir Thomas More's zeal against heresy 180-

(i) Execution of Sir Thomas More. — More himself has to suffer for conscience' sake. More and Fisher sent to the Tower. Execution of Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher (1535) 181

(k) Death of Erasmus in 1536. — Review of the results produced by the

work of the Oxford Reformers. 185

(/) Dissolution of the Mojiasteries and Reform of the Universities (1536).— The work set a-going by the Oxford Reformers goes on. Cromwell, now ecclesiastical minister of Henry VIII., enquires into the state of the monasteries. Dissolution of the monasteries and destruction of shrines. Reform of the Universities. Parliament of 1529-36 dissolved. Tindal's translation of the Bible sanctioned. Martyrdom of Tindal . . 186

(m) Later Years of Henry VIII. (1 536-1 547). — Execution of Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII. marries Jane Seymour. A Catholic rebellion in the North, fomented by the Pope and Reginald Pole, is quelled.

Summary. xiii

PAGE Birth of Edward VI. and death of the queen. Henry VIII. marries Anne of Cleves, but does not like her. Cromwell sacrificed to get rid of her. Reconciliation with Charles V. Henry VIII. 's last two marriages. Alliance with Spain, and wars with France. Want of money. Death of Henry VIII. in 1547. Reform goes on during the reign of Edward VI. Catholic reaction under Queen Mary. ' England become finally Protestant under Queen Elizabeth . . 188 (») Infltience of Henry VIII 's Reign on the English Co7istitution. — How far the constitution was maintained. The revolt from Rome accomplished by constitutional means. The power of Parliament maintained. It preserved its control over taxation, and over the making of new laws. On the whole, the Parliaments of Henry VIII. deserve well of Englishmen. Unjust state trials the chief blot on the reign of Henry VIII. England fared much better than France and Spain 191

Chapter III. Revolt Of Denmark And Sweden And (later) Of Thb Netherlands

(«) Denmark and Sweden. — Both Denmark and Sweden throw off the yoke of Christian II., and then separate. The Swedes elect Gustavus Vasa king. Sweden, under him, becomes a Protestant nation. Denmark also, under her new king, becomes Protestant (1525-1560). 193

(£) The Revolt of the Netherlands.— Policy of Philip II. to subjectthe Netherlanders to Spain and to Rome. They revolt, and the ' United Provinces ' become a Protestant nation (1581) 194

Chapter IV. The Genevan Reformers

(a) Rise of a new School of_ Reform (1536-1541). — A Protestant movement which was not national, but which influenced the Protestants

of France, England, Scotland, and America more than Luther did . 195

(b) John Calvin. — His ' Institutes ' gave logical form to the * Calvinistic ' doctrines. Calvin settles at Geneva. Becomes a kind of dictator of the Genevan state. His severe discipline and intolerance. He founds schools (1509-1564) ... I 196

(fi) Influence of the Genevan School on Western Protestantism.— -The French Huguenots, the Scotch Covenanters, the English Puritans, the Pilgrim Fathers of New England, all of the Genevan school. Their historical importance, and influence 011 national character . 198

Chapter V. Reform Within The Catholic Church

a) The Italian Reformers. — Efforts at Reform within the Church. Improvement in the character of Popes. The Mediating Reformers of Italy. Valdez, Pole, Contarini. Paul III. makes some of them Cardinals. Chances of a reconciliation with Protestants under Paul III. Contarini and Melanchthon try to make peace at the Diet of Ratisbon, but the Pope draws back, and Luther - also. Everything left over till the Council of Trent (1534-1541) . 19* xiv Summary.

PAGE

(b) The new Order of the Society of Jesus (1540). — Ignatius Loyola, a

Spanish knight. Wounded in 1521. Resolves to become a. general of an army of saints instead of soldiers. His austerities. Resolves to found the 'Order of Jesus.' To prepare himself, studies at the University of Paris. At Paris meets Francis Xavier. Xavier becomes a disciple and the great Jesuit missionary to the Indies, China, and Japan. Character of the Jesuits. Their success and influence. Causes of their ultimate unpopularity .... 203

(c) The Council of Trent. — Council of Trent meets in 1545. The

Jesuits prevail over the mediating reformers. The Inquisition introduced into Rome by Carraffa, afterwards Pope Paul IV. The Council adjourned till 1555 under Paul IV. The Roman Catholic Church reformed in morals, but made more rigid than ever in creed ?o6

Chapter VI. The Future Of Spain And France

(a) The Future of Spain. — Growth of absolute monarchy in Spain. Philip II. in close league with the Papacy. Seeks to establish Spanish and Papal supremacy together. Fatal results of his policy 2o3

(b) The FtiHire of France. — Everything sacrificed to gratify the ambition of the absolute monarchy under Francis I. The curse which the absolute monarchy was to France. Struggle with the Huguenots in France. Massacre of St. Bartholomew in 1572. Toleration for a time under the Edict of Nantes. Its revocation in 1685, and the banishment of the Huguenots, who came to England . .210

Chapter VII. General Results Of The Era Of The Protestant Revolution

(a) On the Growth of National Life. — Influence of the Protestant Revolution on national life — where it succeeded — where it failed — where it partly failed and partly succeeded . . . . 212

(b) On the Relations of Nations to each other. — Small improvement in

the dealings between nations. The Oxford Reformers not listened to in this. Henry VIII. the last English king to dream of recovering France. Hugo Grotius afterwards urges International reform 213

if) Influence 011 the Growth of National Languages and Literature. — Luther's Bible and Hymns fix the character of the German language. Influence of Calvin's writings on the French language. Influence of Tindal's New Testament on the English version of the Bible, and so upon the English language 214

(d) Effects in stimulating National Educatio7i. — Schools founded by Savonarola, Colet, Luther, Calvin, Knox, the Pilgrim Fathers, and the Jesuits • 216

0) Jnfltience 071 Domestic Life.— Political importance of domestic Hfe. Danger to it from the existence in a country of large celibate classes. Dissolution of monasteries and permission to the clergy to marry, a step gained for modern civilisation 217

(/) Influence on popular Religion. — The Protestant movement popularised religion, and strengthened individual conviction . . . 2L7_

Summary. xv

PAGE

{£) Want of Progress in Toleration. — Change from Catholic to Protestant creeds was change from one rigid scholastic creed to others equally rigid. Small connection between claiming freedom of thought and conceding it to others. Persecution did not make' ? the persecuted tolerant. Yet toleration was after all one of the ultimate results of the Protestant revolution . . . . . .219

(h) The Causes why the Success of the Era was so partial. — Progress must be gradual. Limited by the range of knowledge. Limited view of the universe. The earth still thought to be in the centre. The crystalline spheres. Heaven beyond. The motion of the spheres regarded with awe, and in popular superstition referred to angels._ Astrology laughed at by some but believed in by others. Belief in visions and inspirations, and in prodigies. Universal belief in witchcraft. Witches as well as heretics burned. Barbarism of criminal law everywhere. The age not prepared for toleration 221

(/) Beginning of Progress in Scientific Inquiry, — The range of geographical and astronomical knowledge widened. Nicolas Copernicus argues that the sun is in the centre of the universe. His great work not published till he was on his death-bed. He was followed by Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo before the century was closed 225

Chapter VIII. Economic Results Of The Era

Results of the Era on what remained of the old serfdom. In Germany, personal services continued. In France, the old rents and payments chiefly in kind continued till 1789. In England, the old rents were chiefly in fixed money payments. Effect of the discovery of the silver mines in the New World. The fall in the value of money caused a great rise in prices. German peasants' services not lessened by it ; nor the French peasants' rents in produce, but it reduced the burden of the English peasants' rents in money to one-sixth or one-eighth of the value of the land. This would have made them peasant proprietors had they held on to their land, but their tendency was to leave their land and become labourers for wages. Change from peasant proprietorship of land and of looms to labour for wages chiefly the result of the growth of commerce and capital and the use of machinery. These changes had begun in the sixteenth century, and they completed the silent downfall of the feudal system in England . 227

Conclusion

The Protestant Revolution was the beginning of a great revolutionary wave which broke in the French Revolution of 1789. The movemen^ was inevitable, and might have been peacefully met and aided by timely reforms : but the refusal of reform at the time of the crisis involved ten generations in the turmoils of revolution , 231

COLOURED MAPS.

At the beginning. i. Christendom &c. 2. The Commerce of Christendom

At the end.

3. Serfdom, and Rebellions against it,

before 1515.

4. The Peasants' War, 1525.

SMALL MAPS.

PnGE

Chief Roman Roads 6

The Ecclesiastical Emphe of Rome . . . ■. .11

The Universities 13

Italy 24

The Seven Prince Electors of Germany . . . .27

Spain and Naples . . . s 34

The Growth of France 40

France in the Era 41

French Provinces claimed by Henry VIII 86

Countries under the Rule of Charles V. .... 102

Extent of the Revolt from Rome 157

The Revolt in Switzerland 159

ERA C

OF THE

PROTESTANT REVOLUTION.

Chapter I. Introductory

(a) The Small Extent of Christendom.

In the map at the beginning of this volume the light portion marks the Old World as it was known at the commencement of the era of which we have to speak.

A glance will show how small a portion of the known world belonged to Christendom — that marked red and striped red. And only the red part belonged The smailto Western or Roman Christendom, with christenwhich we have mostly to do. The part striped dom. red had long ago severed itself from the Western and belonged to the Eastern Churches, which by the Roman Church were regarded as heretical and alien. Thus the Christendom of which Rome was the capital embraced only the western half of the peninsula of Europe. And not even all that. For there was a little bit of Spain (marked blue) which did not belong to Christendom. B