A history of the middle ages

Preface

In" this text-book three subjects have been emphasized: first, the work of the Christian Church, the greatest of the civilizing agencies ; second, the debt which we owe to the Byzantine and Arabic civilizations ; third, the life of the times. While endeavoring to subordinate mere facts and dates, I have intended to introduce those with which a pupil should be familiar.

It is impossible to name the sources to which I am indebted; as I have formed my opinions gradually, during thirteen years in which I have been engaged in studying and teaching medieval history. In preparing the maps I have profited greatly by the admirable Oxford Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. Dr. A. F. Nightingale, of Chicago, Mr. F. L. Thompson, of New York, and Dr. Caroline Colvin, one of my students, have read the whole manuscript and made many helpful suggestions. Prof. E. H. Castle and Dr. A. C. Rowland, of the Teachers College, Dr. E. A. Singer, of Philadelphia, Prof. Wilfred H. Munro, of Brown University, Prof. E. P. Cheyney, and Dr. W. E. Lingelbach, of the University of Pennsylvania, have read one or more chapters. I wish to thank each one of these scholars, individually, for the interest they have taken and the aid

VI MEDIEVAL HISTORY

they have given me. Prof. J. H. Robiusou, of Columbia University, has read all the proofs and suggested many improvements. My wife has assisted me, as in all my work, and the text has been changed constantly to meet her helpful comments. For one chapter I have been especially fortunate in having the criticisms of Mr. Henry C. Lea. It is fitting that I should mention him separately. To praise his scholarship would be a work of supererogation on my part ; but by my study in his library and observation of his methods of working I have learned more than from any other source. For ten years I have profited by his kindness and stimulating example.

Dana Oarleton Munro.

Contents

CHAPTER

PAGE

I. — Introduction 1

Introduction

Isr the latter part of the fourth century a. d. the Roman Empire extended from the Athantic Ocean on the west to

the Eiver Euphrates on the east. On the Unity of the ^^^^.^1^ -^ ^^g bounded by the Rhine and the Roman world, , ■■ , , i 0,1 t> • j •

Danube ; on the south by the Sahara ; Britain

and Egypt were the extreme outposts. Throughout this vast extent of territory every free man was a Roman citizen, Latin was the official language, and Christianity the state religion. All the government was centralized in the emperor, whose will was law. Moreover, the different portions of the empire were not held together by sheer brute force or by the presence of armies ; the people were proud to be Romans and despised all non-Romans. Their forefathers had been under the sway of Rome for three hundred years and had shared in the benefits of the imperial rule. Good roads and an excellent postal service had encouraged commerce and travel. Everywhere the people had sought to imitate the customs and fashions of the capital. The whole Roman world had been unified.

There was one Church,* of which all Christians were

' Although Christians realized that there was but one Church, the word church was used in the middle ages with several different meanings, just as it is at the present day. The following definitions may be noted : a building set apart for Christian worship ; the group of Chrismembers. Its organization was similar to that of the Eoman Empire. In each city there was a bishop assisted by Organization of P^ests. In the chief city of each province the Christian there was an archbishop or metropolitan, who ^'^'^^^ • -was the ruler of the Church in that province.

He summoned the bishops frequently to councils in which were discussed matters relating to the general welfare. In this way the Church became centralized -and strong. Above the archbishops were the patriarchs, who were the bishops of the most important churches. Four were recognized as having preeminence — Jerusalem, Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria. As Eome was the only patriarchate situated in the west, it had no rival when the western part of the empire became separated from the eastern. Its bishop was seldom called the Patriarch of Rome, but instead the term Pope was used. In the middle ages he was recognized as the supreme head of the Church to which all Christians in the west of Europe belonged.

The unity of the empire, but not the unity of the

Church, was destroyed in the fifth century by migrations.

For five hundred years the Romans and the

e erman Germans had been learning to know each other, migrations. °

Many of the latter had been brought into the empire as slaves in the days when Rome had been invincible. Later thousands had fought in the Roman armies, or had received permission to settle and defend the unoccupied lands along the northern boundary. In the fifth century whole nations invaded the western provinces, establishing German kingdoms in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Africa. They did not come to destroy the cities or devastate the country, but to secure homes for themselves.

tian believers in any locality ; the collective body of Christians in the whole world ; the order of the clergy, including bishops, priests, deacons, and monks; the aggregate of ecclesiastical influence and authority. It is impossible to avoid using the word with different meanings, but it is important to distinguish the exact meaning in each case.

INTRODUCTION 3

The population of the Eoman Empire had been decreasing for centuries, and a large part of the laud in the west was uncultivated. There was ample room for these newcomers, and in many places they established themselves as masters with comparatively little bloodshed. The city of Rome suffered most severely, but even there the churches were spared, for the Germans who sacked Rome had been converted to Christianity.

The great mass of the inhabitants suffered little immediate loss from the German conquests. They lived under nearly the same conditions as before, but they

The fusion of ^^^^^ ^^^ masters. The Germans were less the racesnumerous than the Romans, and/never attempted to impose their own civilization upon the latter. They set up tribal governments, but they allowed the Romans to keep their own law. Living in intimate and constant association with each other, intermarriages were common, and each people had a marked influence upon the other. By the eighth century the fusion of the two races had been completed and had produced a new civilization, partly Roman, partly German.

In all the lands formerly held by Rome, except Britain,

the language spoken by the people was a modified form of

Latin (page 20), and not German. The schools

Roman which existed were patterned after Roman

contribution.

methods, and Roman text-books were used. In the arts and trades there had been a great decline in skill, but men still sought to follow the Roman models.

In its laws and government, however, the new civilization was German. The monarchy was elective, and public

representative assemblies acted as a check German upon the king. The free men had an exalted

contnDution, ....

idea of their own importance and trusted to their own strength to obtain justice. The law regarded an accusation of crime as an attack upon a man's honor, against which he must defend himself.

In shaping this civilization the Church had had a very

important part. The only learned men were members of the

clergy, whose aid the German kings were com-

JhTchS. °^ P^^^^^ *^ ^®®^- "^^^ °°^y ^^^^^^ restraint which the rude German warriors recognized was the authority of the Church. Consequently, as the German conquerors were confronted with new problems for which their own customs supplied no solution, they turned to the clergy for advice. The latter became the trusted councilors and officials in each of the new kingdoms. Their services were rewarded by extensive grants of land, and the Church became very wealthy.

The rulers of the Franks,^ who had established a kingdom in what is now northern France, were especially noted as benefactors and champions of the Church. the^Church^^" ^^^® missionaries sent out by Rome were jirotected by them and aided in converting the heathen neighbors of the Franks. When Pippin superseded the " do-nothing " Merovingian ^ ruler he sought and obtained from the Pope a decision that his action was right. When the Lombards, as the Germans who had conquered the northern part of Italy were called, threatened to wrest Eome from the Pope, Pippin conquered them and gave a large portion of their territory to the Pope. When the Lombards again became dangerous, Pippin's son, Charles the Great, reconquered them and confirmed his father's gift. The donations of Pippin and Charles the Great resulted in the formation of the Papal States.

In addition to the aid given to the missionaries and the subjugation of the Lombards, the Franks had performed another service of great importance to Christian Europe

' A German nation which had formerly dwelt along the lower Rhine.

' Merovingian, the name of the family to which Clnvis and all the early kings belonged. The Merovingians were succeeded by the Carolingian family.

W H

H

M

Q

INTRODUCTION by checking the advance of the followers of Islam. This religion had arisen in Arabia, and had been founded by Mohammed, who died in 632. Its most im- Eise of Islam. pQ^^^nt precepts were a belief in one God who had determined the fate of every human being, and absolute obedience to His prophet Mohammed, whose commands

Facsimile of Merovingian Writing.

were contained in the Koran. The Arabs, who had been merely an aggregation of tribes, without a common government or a common religion, became a nation under the theocratic rule of Mohammed's successors, the califs.

Even before the Prophet died his followers had sought to compel others to accept the new religion. Within a

hundred years after his death the Mohamme- Is°iam^^*^°^ dans conquered Persia, India, all of western

Asia, Egypt and the whole northern coast of Africa, Spain, and part of southern Gaul. Everywhere they gave to the conquered the choice between the Koran, tribute, or the sword — that is, they must either embrace the doctrines of Islam, or pay tribute, or be exterminated. The fatalism which was an essential part of their creed 2

Q)

had made them almost invincible soldiers. Each war against unbelievers was to them a holy war, and every Mohammedan slain in battle was a martyr who had won paradise. The Prophet had commanded that all booty should be divided fairly among the victors. The combination of enthusiastic religion, fatalism, and the prospect of booty caused Islam to be adopted eagerly by most of the inhabitants of the conquered countries.

The triumphant advance of the Mohammedans received its first great check at Constantinople in 717. The calif had sent an army of eighty thousand men and CMfstantinople. ^ ^®®^ ^^ eighteen hundred vessels, which besieged the city by land and sea for a year- Then the army suffered a disastrous defeat from the Bulgarians, who had come to the aid of Constantinople. This, together with the lack of provisions, compelled the Mohammedans to retreat. Their fleet was wrecked in returning home, and it is said that only thirty thousand men and five vessels escaped destruction. Thus Constantinople, by its brave resistance, had saved eastern Europe from subjugation to Islam. For three hundred and fifty years the Mohammedans did not again attempt to capture the capital of the Eoman Empire.

■ In western Europe the task of stemming the tide of

invasion was at first more difficult, as there was no great

bulwark like Constantinople. But the Franks

Check in the ^^^^^^^^ ^j^^ leadership of Charles Martel forced west. ^

the Mohammedans to retreat, after a desperate

battle near Tours (732), and gradually recovered all of

Gaul. They did this the more easily because internal

wars were sapping the strength of Islam, so that the Moors ^

in Spain ceased to be a great danger to Christianity.

The invasions of the Germans and Mohammedans had

' A mixed race, formed by the intermarriiige of Arabs with natives of the northern coast of Africa.

wrested from the empire all of its provinces except the

European possessions east of the Adriatic and a few places

in Italy. The Mohammedan conquests were

Result of separated from the Christian world not only by

invasions, ^ _ _ j j

a difference in religion, but also by the barriers of language and customs, for the conquerors had introduced everywhere the Arabic language and their own Oriental mode of living. In the countries conquered by the Germans there were many different races, each having its own dialect, laws, and customs. The Franks had succeeded in conquering many of the other races, but as yet there was no unity of feeling except the bond of a common religion. If they were to survive the attacks of their more barbarous neighbors it was necessary that they should be united more closely and become more civilized. This was the work of Charles the Great.

Emerton's Introductian to the Study of the Middle Ages (Boston, 1892) is the best short volume on the subjects included in this chapter. Robinson's Medieval and Modern History (Boston, 1902), eh. ii-vi, is an admirable brief summary.

Chapter II

Summary. — Charles the Great, by his strong personality, was able to influence his subjects. His interest in education led him to adopt Roman customs. His religious zeal brought him into intimate relations with the papacy. As the idea of a world-wide empire, which included all Christians, was still held by thoughtful men, Charles, whose dominions were so extensive, was the logical choice for the position of emperor. His coronation brought him and his successors into still closer association with the Church. While he lived he was able to centralize the government of his dominions in his own hands. After his death the elements of weakness in the imperial constitution, especially the German principle of division, led to the rapid decline of the empire and to the rise of separate and weak kingdoms.

Chakles was large, strong, and of lofty stature, though

not disproportionately tall.^ His height is well known to

^ , , , have been seven times the length of his foot. Descnption of T i j i • •

Charles, His appearance was always stately and digni-

768-814. gg(j Q^^ ]^jg ^hole carriage manly. He de-

spised foreign clothes, however splendid, and wore the national costume of the Franks. This consisted of a linen shirt and linen breeches, and over these a tunic fringed with silk ; hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs and shoes his feet. Over all he flung a blue cloak, and he always wore a sword. In winter he added a coat of otteror marten-skin. On great festivals he dressed magnificently in embroidered clothes and shoes bedecked with gems, and

' The description is taken from the biography of Charles, written by his friend and secretary. Einhard. Charles is the only man of his time of whom such a full description has been preserved.

wore a diadem ; but on other days his dress varied little from the common costume of wealthy Franks.

He was an able, fearless general. He took frequent exercise on horseback and in hunting and often practised swimming, in which he was such an adept that His c aracter. j^^^g could surpass him. Although slow to anger, few dared to meet his fiery glances when he was once aroused. He was temperate in eating and especially in drinking, but he complained that church fasts were injurious to his health. He was simple in his habits and loved his native German customs. But he realized that the Koman civilization was higher and better than the German in many respects, and he strove to borrow from it all that could be serviceable to the Franks. His energy was inexhaustible.

He was a ready and _ ^ient speaker both in his^ ^ive

to ngue and in Latin, and he understood Gr eek. Hetried

to learn to write, but he began too lateTDTTife

ffis interest m ^^ succeed in acco mplis hi ng m uch more than his own s ign ature. He was a zealous student,

delighting especially in mathematics, astronomy, and theology. He established many schools in his kingdom and took a keen interest in the progress of the students. His own children were carefully educated under the direction of Alcuin,^ and Charles often studied with them. He gathered together at his court all the most learned men of the age and sought their aid and instruction. He was active in reforming and enriching the Church services and paid special attention to the singing, which he often directed in person. Such is the description given of him by his contemporaries and especially by Einhard, his'secretary.

' Alcuin, born about 735, was educated at York. England, and became the most learned man of his time. He was persuaded by Charles to become the hitter's teaclier. Teacher and pupil lived in close friendship until Alcuin's death in 804. See West, Alcui?i (New York, 1893).

It is to be noted that his most important work was the fusing of the best elements in the two civilizations, Roman and German. He did not copy indiscrimi- ^^'^"^ ■ nately, but he chose wisely the features of the

Roman culture which seemed most desirable for his people. This course resulted in a profound influence upon the future of the Germans.

Incpntcapl

DIALOGliM:

J (J BIODuLTiTuDobomi

Facsimile of Caeolingian Writing.

In the preceding chapter the intimate relations of the popes and the early Frankish kings have been mentioned, ffis connection during the reign of Charles the alliance bewiththe came much closer. He had conquered the

papacy. Lombards and had given a part of their king-

dom to the Pope. He insisted upon the adoption of Christianity by the Saxons whom he conquered. In his kingdom, in pursuance of his educational policy, he had done much to strengthen the Church, from whose officers he drew his teachers. He increased its Avealth by commanding the payment of tithes by his subjects, and he himself set the example. When the people of Rome rebelled and the Pope was compelled to flee from the city, Charles put down the rebellion and gave the Pope protection.

The grandeur of the Eoman Empire still. impressed the

minds of men. The fourth empire in the prophecy of

Daniel ^ was believed to be the Roman, which

Prestige of the ^,.^g destined to endure till the end of the

Roman Empire •

world. Although the capital had been transferred to Constantinople and the empire had lost much of its territory, reverence for the imperial idea had never been lost. Men believed that there must be a Roman Empire and could not conceive of the world without one. This idea was of great importance and influence throughout the middle ages. But the Greek Empire had lost prestige in the West, as its power was no longer felt. The papacy wished to break away from connection with it because it was heretical. Irene was now Empress of Constantinople ; the Germans considered it unfitting that a woman should govern, and detested her for her crimes. Charles ruled almost all the territory in the West which formerly had been under the rule of Rome, besides much that had never been Roman.

As the result of fifty or more military campaigns conducted under his direction, Charles had become the ruler

■mi, 4- .1, of all the Germanic nations from the Baltic

what the empire of Charles Sea on the north to the city of Rome on the

included. south, from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to

the Elbe and the Saale on the east. " He so largely increased the kingdom of the Franks, which was already great and strong when he received it from his father's hands, that more than double its former territory was added to it " (Einhard). By these conquests Charles had become more than the king of any nation or of any two or three nations. On the boundaries of his realm he was the nominal overlord of many races of barbarians ; these, however, were

1 See Daniel, chap, ii, vv. 31-45.

Seal of Charles.

never in subjection, except when overawed by a strong military force. Most of the kingdom actually under his sway Avas occupied by Germans, who were divided into many nations or tribes, differing from one another in language, laws, and customs. Some were civilized, while others were almost barbarous.

Christianity was the state religion, but in many districts the precepts of Christianity were scarcely known and seldom, if ever, heeded.

Among the Saxons Charles found it necessary to forbid human sacrifices to the pagan divinities and the eating of the bodies of witches.

This rule over men of many nations, occupying such widely extended territory, made a vivid impression on the minds of his subjects. In order to describe his power, even before he was crowned emperor, they referred to it as imperial.

It seemed fitting that the king who ruled the imperial territory should be crowned emperor at the ancient capital. Consequently, on Christmas day, 800, as Charles knelt in prayer at the altar of old St. Peter's in Rome, the Pope suddenly placed upon his head the imperial crown, and the people shouted joyously : " To Charles, most pious and august, crowned by God, the great and peace-loving emperor, be life and victory ! "

Thus was the medieval empire founded, and Charles

was the first of a long succession of emperors which was

to end only in the nineteenth century. But

s position as j^jg contemporaries did not realize that there emperor, ^

had been any new creation ; they believed that the old Roman Empire was still in existence and that Charles was the direct successor of Augustus, Trajan, and Constantine. Furthermore, in the opinion of his contem-

Coronation of Charles.

poraries Charles had received additional importance and power by the coronation. There was to them only one emperor, and his dignity was far greater than that of any king. He was thought to be the head of the Christian Cliurch in all secular matters as the Pope was in all spiritual matters. As a matter of fact this never was true; there were always Christian countries which were not included in the empire. Moreover, the title did not add any real power ; whatever power the emperor actually had was due to his position as king. The empire had no territory, no subjects, no army, no revenues, except as these were supplied by the territory, subjects, army, and revenues of the king who was crowned emperor. These facts must be borne in mind whenever the empire is studied.

Yet Charles believed that he had received an increase of power and dignity when he became ruler of the Eoman 'scon- Empire. He required every one of his subjects ceptionofMs over twelve years of age to take a new oath of position. obedience to him, and in this oath were in-

cluded not merely the duties to the state, but also the duties to God ; leading a godly life, protection to widows and orphans were enjoined in the same manner as military service or obedience to the game-laws. Charles believed that as emperor he was the vicegerent of God on earth, and in his conscientious zeal confused entirely the duties of the state and of the Church. This confusion is characteristic of the whole medieval period.

The machinery which Charles had for enforcing these Q^.f^ei-s — that is, the organization of the administrative system in his empire — was very different from Administrative ^^^^^ ^^ modern kingdom. First, there

svstGnit

was no imperial taxation. Charles secured his income mainly from his private estates, which were merely large farms managed for his benefit. He gave much personal attention to the care of his property, and was watchful lest he might be defrauded of some of the grain grown or some of the eggs which his hens laid. In fact, some writers, observing the attention which he gave to these matters, have styled him " only a German farmer." In the second place, Charles expected and received gifts each year from most of his important officials. These gifts varied in character and amount, but their total value was great. In the third place, Charles exacted fines from his subjects when they were negligent in the performance of their duties or when they were guilty of crimes. From these sources and from the spoils of war the imperial treasury was filled.

On the other hand, the expenses for the empire were very small, if compared with those of a modern government. There was little or no expenditure for The expenses. ,1 ^ j_\ t j> • 1 i •

the army, for the police, tor internal improvements, for courts of justice, or for education. All of these functions were left to local officials, under the control of the central government, who received no salary from the treasury.

The chief among these were the counts, who were generally chosen from the most powerful families resident throughout the empire. Sometimes the o&Ims counts ruled over cities and the land adjacent ;

sometimes they governed larger territories. The most important were those on the frontiers, who were called margraves. It was their especial duty to protect the empire from sudden invasions. Situated at a great distance from the center of power, and required to be ready constantly to act on their own initiative, they were given necessarily a large amount of power and independence. The counts and margraves were expected to maintain order and administer justice in their territories. When an army was required they levied the soldiers, saw that they were properly equipped, and led them to battle. In fact, the whole local administration of the government was practically in the hands of the counts.

IG MEDIEVAL HISTORY

In order to maintain control over them and to centralize the government, Charles employed special agents, who were called " missi do7ninici" or imperial issi ominici, jj^gggengers. These were sent out each year to the various districts of the empire. It was their duty to correct the mistakes in the local administration, to hear appeals from the judgment of the counts or margraves, to make known special laws enacted by the emperor, and in general to represent his authority. Usually two missi were sent out together in order that one might serve as a check upon the other, and their districts were changed every year in order to prevent collusion with the local counts. Ordinarily one of the missi was a layman and the other a bishop or abbot.

The leading members of the clergy played an important part in the government. They held large properties, and over these they exercised the same powers that ATDbotsand ^j^^ counts had over land not held by the Church. The position of the Church as a whole will be treated in the following chapter ; here it is essential to note only the share it had in the government. The abbots and bishops administered justice, raised the troops, and acted in every way as imperial officials. This tended still more to increase the confusion between the religious duties and the political duties, which has been noted already.

That Charles had united western Europe and brought

the nations together into a Christian state had been due

„^ . „ mainly to the strength of his own personal

Tne influence •' '^ , t i <? i

of Charles's character. His subjects respected and teared personality. ]-,^jj^ , ^j^gy admired his bravery and dreaded his anger. He was devoted to the service of the Church, but he ruled its members with a firm hand and made them aid in the imperial administration. By the force of his personality he controlled all the discordant elements in the state and founded the medieval empire. After his death

THE EMPIRE OF CHARLES THE GREAT lY

the empire was not strong enough to make the union permanent. It soon split up into separate kingdoms, but the memory of it was one of the cohesive forces for the future.

Where so much power was entrusted to the counts and the missi, it was certain to be abused whenever the emperor's El ments of ^^^ could be eluded. Einhard says that the weakness : the missi were frequently dishonest. It was to officials. their interest to connive at the misdeeds of

the counts. The latter were almost independent in their own counties and used their great opportunities for their own profit. There was much friction between the lay officials and the rulers of the Church. It was a period of lawlessness and barbarism.

Each of the separate nations forming the empire had its own laws, customs, and dialect. They felt little interest in the empire, and were held in check only ni!* ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Charles or by the need of his pro-

tection from their barbarian neighbors. The Franks, who were the immediate subjects of Charles and formed his greatest strength, were being destroyed by the wars which had lasted for so many years, fhfprf^r^ As many were either killed or wounded and others ruined, throughout the empire it was more and more difficult to obtain men for the army. But of all the Germans, it was the Franks who suffered the most, and as there was no interval of peace, their strength and numbers gradually became exhausted.

The great extent of the empire made government difficult. The roads were extremely bad, and traveling was dangerous, as robbers lurked in the woods. It communication. ^^ "^^^^ ^^ remember that western Europe was very sparsely settled ; that there were no railroads, no steamboats, and no telegraph. The roads and bridges which the Eomans had made were being destroyed by the lapse of time, and the subjects of Charles did not know liow to make new ones equally good. All travel by