Training in wood-work, designed for use in manual training and technical school; consisting of three parts: carpentry, wood-turning and pattern work

Preface

The character and object of this book is set forth on its title page. It is a manual designed principally for the assistance of students in wood-work in its various branches as well as a help to the instructor. The author has endeavored to present the subject in such a manner as to make simple the transition from the easier to the more difificult operations. The exercises have been selected after an experience in this line of instruction, covering a period of twelve 3^ear3 and will be found practical in their aJpplication to students in manual training in technical and industrial schools. Part first, Carpentr}', is intended to cover from sixty to seventy hours of work. Part second, Wood-Turning, not to exceed thirty-five hours. Part third, Pattern-Making, fifty or sixty hours, thus making a course which will be found to touch the principal points in the three branches of wood- work commonly taught in manual training schools or schools of technology or engineering. It has been the aim of the author to give in this course just enough instruction to enable the student to study the problems for himself, thereby the better fitting him for the construction of patterns for any machine which may be assigned him to complete his course in pattern-making, which is changed annually. A perusal of this work will disclose many features which the author feels sure will commend themselves to instructors and others interested in this department of school work. With the hope that these pages may prove a valuable aid to students and teachers alike, this work is presented to the public.

James M. Tate.

FIRST PART.

The Care and Use of Tools.

It is conceded by all practical mechanics that no workman can do good work without first being able to put tools in proper condition.

The tools supplied to each student and which he is required to keep in order, are as follows :

I Jointer plane. i Try square.

I Jack plane. i Bevel square.

I Block plane. i Hammer.

4 Paring chisels. i Screw-driver.

I Marking gauge. i Back saw.

These tools are to be kept at each desk, and under the care of the student assigned to such desk, who will be held responsible for them and their condition. There are numerous other general tools for use in the shop, which may be obtained in the tool room when the work assigned to the student may require their use.

The first operation to be understood by the student, is the grinding of a chisel or a plane bit. To do this properly requires great care. The tool should be held upon the grindstone at an angle of about 22 degrees for soft pine, or about 30 degrees for hard wood. It is advisable to hold the tool on the grindstone in such a position that the grinding will be in a direction toward the cutting edge of the tool, as shown in

Fig. 1.

Fig. I., to prevent a feather or wire edge. The tool while being- held on the grindstone should be moved slowly, back and forth, at right angles to the motion of the stone, to prevent grooves or uneven places being made on the tool edge. When the grinding is completed, the tool should appear as shown in Fig. 2 and not as in Fig. 3, which is in poor condi-

Incorrect

CoRfiECT

Fig. 3. Fig. 2.

tion. The method is applicable to plane irons and chisels when the grinding is done free-hand, Init various devices may be used to do the work of grinding in a much more accurate wav. One verv successful device is shown in Fig. 4, where-

Fig. 4.

by the tool may be held in a fixed position, and a true bevel may be ground on the tool without the operator necessarily being- a skilled workman. ]\'Iuch more might be said on this subject, but with these few suggestions a beginner may become proficient with but little practice. After being properly ground the tool should be whet upon an oilstone to insure a smooth cutting edge, but in no case should a tool be ground or whet on the flat side. The proper angle at which the tool should be held on the oilstone will be better understood by a glance at Fig. 5.

Fig. 5.

To remove wire or feather edge, which may be caused by too much grinding or whetting, a leather strap should be used, after which the tool will have a fine and smooth cutting edge, providing the operation has been properly performed.

The gouge is a chisel curved or concaved so as to form a curved cutting edge. Gouges are ground on both inside and outside, as the work may require. Inside ground gouges, should be ground on the round edge of an emery wheel, but great care must be taken not to draw the temper by too fast grinding or too great pressure. The outside ground gouge may be ground on a common grindstone, but the tool must be rocked from side to side in order to bring the convex surface in contact with the grindstone.

Whetting a gouge may be best accomplished with the round edge of a slipstone, after which the use of a leather strap adds much to the smoothness of the edge and its cuttingqualities.

The rules laid down in the foregoing pages will apply to edge tools in general'. After a tool has been used for some time, and has had the operation of whetting performed on it a number of times after grinding, it is necessary to repeat the grinding.

The proper manner in which to use a plane will next be considered. The jack plane i's made use of to take ofit" the rough outside surface, and the jointer, to true up and smooth the surface, thus producing a true plane. The jack plane iron should be ground somewhat rounding, so as to appear below the bottom of the plane, as shown in Fig. 6. This is

IL^

Fig. 0.

the proper tool to use in removing a surplus of stock. The edge of cutter being curved, causes it to cut more easily, and the work may be done more expeditiously and easily for the operator. The jointer iron should be nearly straight across and only cut a very thin chip. See Fig. 7. The block plane a

Fig. 7.

should be ground and whet in much the same manner as the jointer, but the cutting iron is placed in the plane in an inverted position, as compared with the jointer or jack plane.

MANUAL TRAINING n

See Fig. 8. This is due to the fact that the iron is set at a less angle than in the jack or jointer planes. The block plane r'ti'

Fig. 8.

Is made use of to cut across the end of material as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9.

The chisel is a tool which can only be used successfully by practical experience and instruction. To pare smoothly with a chisel, it is necessary to understand the grain of the wood to be treated. In order to pare smoothly across the grain, the chisel edge should be held at an angle to the fiber of the wood, but the motion of the chisel should be directly across the grain. To pare end grain, the chisel should be given a motion across the end grain as well as a downward motion, which may be understood better by a glance at Fig. 10. The chisel most convenient for this work, is ij^2 inches wide. For mortising and dovetail joints, a bevel edge chisel is the best, and the chisel best adapted to the work must be selected. For bevel edge chisel see Fig. loa.

The marking gauge is a tool for marking lines on the work, which must be j^arallel with the fiber of the wood.

In the use of this tool great care must be taken to move the gauge in the proper direction. The marking point on the gauge is Hable to fohow the grain or fiber, and the operator should observe the direction in which the grain or fiber runs and move his gauge accordingly. Fig. 11 will give an idea of the operation as it should be performed. The pressure should be applied as shown in diagram. If the gauge is moved in the opposite direction, it is plainly to be seen that the marking point on the gauge would follow the direction of the fiber and the liye would not be parallel to the edge gauged from.

The try square is a tool used for squaring across the work and squaring the edges, or to determine when the edges are square. The most accurate maimer in which to use the try square to determine the correct condition of an edge is to place it on the work as shown in Fig. 12. When the square is placed on the work in this manner to determine the correctness of an edge, pressure should be put on the portion of tlie square as shown in the diagram, and with the pressure in this direction, move the square slowly downward until the blade comes in contact with the work at some point, which will determine the exact condition of the edge. The ordinary way of applying the try square to the work is shown in

Fig. 13. The advantage of the method as shown in Fig. 12 is that the long blade of the square in contact with the wide surface is a longrer and a more accurate indicator.

The bevel square is a tool used for the purpose of guiding the marker in making lines at an angle or obliquely across the work. The blade, being adjustable, may be set at any angle from one to ninety degrees. The bevel square is shown in position on the work in Fig'. 14.

The hammer and screw-driver are tools which need no explanation as to their usefulness, but the latest and most improved patterns, such as the lightning and rapid transit screwdrivers, are much more convenient and expeditious. A word might be said here as to the manner in which a screw-driver should be fitted to the slot in the screw. The beginner will ordinarily fit a screw-driver as shown in Fig. 15. This is in extremely bad form. The best form is as shown in Fig. 16. This condition prevents the screw-driver from slipping out of the slot in the head of the screw with very little do'.viiward pressure, while in the preceding figure it can be seen readily, that the driver would require great pressure, and, at the same time, be liable to slip out of the slot and damage the head of the screw. The correctly fitted screw-driver and its position in the slot of the screw are shown in Fig. 17.

The back saw is a small saw, used for small work at the bench; such as joints, cutting off, etc., but cannot be used for anything larger than two or three inches in thickness, and even at this thickness, a larger saw is more applicable. The back saw is shown in Fig i8.

The tools necessary for any purpose outside of those already mentioned are listed as general tools, and are kept in the tool room and can be obtained upon application to the instructor. Following is a partial list of the tools necessary for the various exercises, used in the carpentry course :

Crosscut saw. Rip saw.

Bit brace.

Auger bits (various sizes from ^4 ii''- to i in)

i6

Rabbet plane. Plougb plane.

Oilstone. Slipstone.

Steel square.

Tlie crosscut saw is used for the purpose of cutting across the grain or fiber of the wood. The teeth of a crosscut saw are of the shape shown in Fig. .19. The teeth are filed to a lance shape and are inclined somewhat- toward the point of the saw. Every alternate tooth is inclined toward one side of the blade, so as to cut^an opening slightly wider than the tliickness of the blade. This is called set and provides clearance for the saw in passing through the wood. The rip saw is used for cutting parallel with the grain and has a differently formed tooth, see Fig. 20, and is filed directly across. The proper angle or rake for teeth of a rip saw may be determined by placing the try square on the points of the teeth, as shown in Fig. 21. The front side of the tooth should be at a right angle to the line of the points of the teeth ; while in the crosscut, the test may be made by placing the try square on the back of the saw, as shown in

Fig 22. The front or cutting edge of the tooth should be parallel to the blade of the square. This rule is the best for rJM\f\ r\^-JM'x^.J\MVMM\KKK^N^s^ crosscut saws for general use, but gives somewhat more rake or angle than is suggested by some writers on the sub-

0®

Wl/M/

^VHl ject. It is evident that the more rake the saw tooth has, i8 the more freely it will cut, but with too much rake or angle it will not cut so smoothly. This rule, however, is one which meets with the approval of practical workmen, in general. The bit brace will need no further explanation than is afforded by Fig 23. This tool is used to drive the auger or drill by hand, and to hold it in a fixed position while performing the work of boring. The various kinds of bits, made use of in wood working, are the

Auger bit. Expansive bit.

Wood drill. Bottom bit.

Center bit.

The various kinds are shown in Fig. 24.

Bottom bit.

Fig. 24 Continued.

The rabbet plane is shown in Fig. 25, and is used to plane out by hand such angles as are shown in Fig. 26. This plane

Fig. 25

is adapted to cutting parallel with the grain, "but for cutting across the grain the filHster plane is best. This plane differs from the rabbet plane somewhat. The cutter is not set at a right angle to the plane, but is arranged obliquely across the bottom of the plane, thereby giving a skew cut. This is necessary to insure a smooth surface in cutting across the grain. It also has a spur or cutter projecting below the bot-

FiS torn and in advance of the cutter proper and cutting in a parallel line to the motion of the plane to cut the fiber of the crossgrain. The fillister is shown in Fig. 27. A very conven-

Fie. 2> lent tool is the combination rabbet and fillister. This tool will perform the work of both. The plough plane is shown in Fig. 28 and is used in planing a groove or double angle, as shown in Fig. 29. This plane has cutters of various widths^ which may be adjusted in the plane to accommodate the work to be done. It also has a depth gauge in order to make the groove the proper depth. This gauge may be set and, when the limit has been reached, the plane will no longer cut.

The oilstone and slipstone will need no explanation as to their usefulness, after what has been said in regard to edged tools. The best quality of stones for the most expeditious sharpening is the red India oilstone, but for the finer and more smoothly cutting edge the Arkansas is the best.

The steel square is next to be considered. This tool is deserving of more than it is possible to find room for in this work ; but an explanation of what is marked on the square, and what should be understood by every student will be all that will be spoken of in this connection. The square recommended and the one adopted for general use, is marked No. 100. This tool is very useful to the house carpenter, the stair builder, and the millwright; but it is almost indispensable to any mechanic, and should be understood by engineers in general. The square is shown in Figs. 30 and 31. The figures and graduations on the face of the square pertain to lumber measure, brace measure and a scale for laying out timbers to be made octagonal in form.

We will first consider lumber measure as shown in Fig. 30. A knowledge of its use may be obtained by a few moments' study and when once understood, is always at hand and ready for use. The following explanations are deemed sufficiently clear to give the student a full knowledge of the rule.

By examining Fig. 30, we will find under the figure 12 on the outer edge of the blade, the length of the board or plank to be measured, and the answer, in feet and inches, is found under the inches in width that the board or plank measures. For example ; take a board , 9 feet long and 5 inches wide, then under the figure 12 on the second line will In case the plane is placed on the work,' as shown in Fig. 38, be found the figure 9 which is the length of the board ; then run along the line to the figure directly under the 5 inches, (the width of the board) and you will find 3 feet and 9 inches, which is the correct answer in board measure.

If the material is two inches thick this result may be multiplied by two, and if three or four inches thick, multiply accordingly to get the proper solution in board or lumber measure.

If the material to be measured is longer than any figure shown on the square, it can be measured by dividing the length, and adding the results. The rule is calculated, as its name implies, for board measure or lumber one inch in thickness. It may be used in measuring timbers by multiplying the superficial measure of one surface by the thickness of the timber in inches. To illustrate ; suppose a timber which is 10 inches by 14 inches by 25 feet is to be measured; for the length take 12 ft. and 13 ft.; for the width we will take 10 inches, and multiply the result by 14; by the rule a board 12 ft. long and 10 inches wide contains 10 ft. ; and a board 13 ft. long and 10 inches wide contains 10 ft. 10 in.; therefore, a board 25 ft. long, arid 10 in. wide, must contain 20 ft. 10 in.

In the timber measured, we have what is equivalent to 14 such boards and we multiply 20 ft. 10 in. by 14, which gives us 291 ft. 8 inches, the correct answer.

The brace rule is always placed along the center line of the tongue of the square, as shown in Fig. 30. This rule is easily understood. The figures on the left of the line represent the run or the length of two sides of a right angle, while the figures on the right represent the exact length of the third side of a right-angled triangle in inches, tenths and hundredths; — or, to put it in another way, the equal numbers placed one above the other, may be considered as representing the sides of a square and the third number to the right, the length of the diagonal of that square. The exact length of a brace, from point to point, having a rise of 33 inches and a run of 33 inches would be 46.67 inches. The brace rule varies somev/hat in the matter of the runs shown on different squares ; some squares give a few brace lengths of which the runs upon the beam and the rise on the post are unequal. The rise and run of a brace are shown in Fig. 32.

The octagonal scale is shown on the central division of the opposite side of the tongue from the brace rule and its use is as follows : Suppose a stick of timber ten inches square is to be made octagonal ; make a center line which will be five inches from each edge ; set a pair of compasses, putting one point on any of -the main divisions shown on the square in this scale, and the other point on the tenth subdivision; — this division marked off from the center line on each surface will give the points for the gauge line. Gauge from the corners both ways, and the lines for making the timber octagonal in its section are obtained. Always take the number of spaces or subdivisions in the scale to correspond with the number of inches square from the center line. Thus if a stick is 12 inches square, take 12 spaces on the scale; if only 6 inches square, take 6 spaces. The rule always to be observed is as follows: Set off from each side of the center line as many spaces by the octagon scale as the timber is inches square. For timbers larger in size than the number of divisions in the scale, the measurements by it may be doubled or multiplied as occasion may require. 'Fig. 33 shows an end of a timber, laid out by the above scale.

This scale is a very useful one, but a more convenient and simple rule is the following: To lay ofif a square timber to be made octagonal, place the square on one flat surface of the timber in the manner shown in Fig". 34, take the scratch awl or pencil, and mark a point against the edge of the blade on the surface of the timber at the seventh inch mark, and from the adjacent corner of the timber set the marking gauge to the point marked at seven. From each corner gauge lines on each surface of the timber parallel with its length and when the corners of the timber have been worked ofif to the lines drawn, it will be octagonal in section.

The diagonal scale is on the tongue of the square at its junction with the blade as shown in Fig. 35 and is used for getting measurements to i/ioo inch. The lengths of the lines between the diagonal and the perpendicular are marked on the latter; primary divisions are tenths and the junction of the diag-onal lines with the longitudinal parallel lines enables

the operator to obtain divi-

isions of one hundredth parts of an inch. For example, if we wish to obtain twenty-four one hundredths, we place compasses on the dots on the fourth parallel line which covers two primary divisions and a fraction or four-tenths of the third primary division, which added together make twenty-four hundredths of an inch.

This scale is very easily understood and needs no further explanation. All other scales on the square are simply inches and divisions of an inch. There are many problems which can be worked out on the steel square, but those explained above are marked on the square aside from the inches and divisions of an inch, and are considered most important.

CARPENTRY.

Exercise No. i,

IL

Exercise No. i, is shown in Fig-. 36 and consists of a parallel piece two feet eig-ht inches in leno-th, four inches in width, and one inch in thickness. The work should be conducted in the following' manner. Place the material on the work bench and against the bench stop. Plane the rough surface of one side with the jack plane, after which, take the jointer or fore plane and true the surface up, making- it a true plane.

Fig. 3:

This may be accomplished more expeditiously by observing the following rules. Move the plane on a line parallel with the length as shown in Fig. ^7 and not as shown in Fig. 38.

the result will be invariably a warped or twisted surface. Another point to be given consideration is the pressure downward on the plane while the operator is moving it ahead in a line with the work upon starting the plane to cut as shown in Fig. 39. The downward pressure should be applied on the

^a front handle of the plane, and, as the tool is moved alongtoward the other end of the work, the pressure should be only on the rear handle, as shown in Fig. 40. No pressure should be applied to the end of the plane which overhangs the end of the piece of work ; for when pressure is put on the overhanging end the result cannot be otherwise than a rounded surface, as shown in Fig. 41, so that while the operator is striving to get a true surface, he is making it more untrue.

A beginner is very liable to make the surface warped or winding, and, his eye being untrained in the work, he finds it hard to decide when the surface is correct. In order to prove a surface use the steel square as a straight edge. Place it parallel with edge of the work, to decide when work is straight ; and place it diagonally across to determine as to a warped surface, as in Fig. 42. If the square fits in all directions the surface is true. ,

The parallel rules or two steel squares may be used to prove the surface in the manner shown in Fig. 43. When placed in this position, look across the top o.f the rules lengthwise with the work, and if the top lines of the rules appear parallel there is no warp in the surface.' To prove it by the eye requires training. A skilled workman can decide at a glance by looking along the surface lengthwise, and raising the end nearest the eye until the top surface disappears, and b\ comparing the Hnes of the ends as shown in the following sketch, No. 44. If the lines of the two ends appear parallel, there is no wind or warp in the surface. After the piece is finished, so far as planing is concerned, the numbered surfaces will appear as shown in Fig. 45.

After the first surface has been made perfect, it should be marked No. i. After this has been done, an adjacent edge should be made straight and square with No. i. This surface should be marked No. 2. The corner or angle formed by surfaces Nos. i and 2 constitutes the working line or edge from which all gauging and squaring should be done. With the marking gauge make a line on surface No. i four inches from the working edge, using that edge as a guide for the gauge. Place surface No. 2 downward on the bench and plane the third surface down to the line, at the same time making it square with surface No. i, which will make the piece four inches in width. This surface should be marked No. 3. Both Nos. 2 and 3 must be squared to No. i. The gauge should next be set to the thickness of the required piece, and a line be drawn on surfaces Nos. 2 and 3, using surface No. I as a guide for the marking gauge. Place surface No. I downward and proceed to plane the fourth surface to the lines drawn on Nos. 2 and 3 ; this may be done more easily by planing on one edge as shown in Fig. 46 and, when the line has

1 ^

Fig. +> been reached on this edge, transfer to the other edge and plane to the line on this edge (see Fig. 47) which will leave the surface high in the center as shown in Fig. 48. Next transfer the plane to a central position and plane the center down to a straight line across, planing nothing ofif at the extreme edges which may be proven by applying the try square as shown in Fig. 49. This surface is to be marked No. 4. If the work has been done properly, the opposite surfaces of the piece will be parallel.

To lay out the lines on the piece as shown in Fig. ^6 it is best to proceed in the following manner. Place the try square across surface No. i near the end, with the body of the square against surface No. 2, and with the body of the o o square held firmly against this edge, mark with the point of a knife a line across surface No. i and exactly parallel to the blade or tongue of the sq,uare. This is the end line from which all measurements running lengthwise with the piece must be taken. Six cross lines are drawn across in the same manner. The distances from the end line —

I m

2 in

2^ in.

3^ in.

3/3 in.

m.

The other end line is then drawn two feet from the eight inch cross line. These lines are then to be squared around the piece always placing the try square on surface Nos, i or 2. After the cross lines are made the marking gauge must be used in marking lines on surfaces Nos. i and 4 lengthwise of the piece one-half inch apart from the eight inch line to the last end, using surface No. 2 as a guide for the marking gauge. The cross Hues are to serve as a guide in sawing for the crosscut saw across, and the longitudinal lines as a guide for the rip saw. The ends should be sawed oft' next, being careful to have the saw cut come outside the line, and not over its center. Otherwise, the piece will be shorter than the required length. Next cut to the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th lines in the same manner as the first, keeping on the same side of each. Do not cut through the piece but leave one-eighth of an inch in thickness uncut. The rip sawing is next to be done, sawing on the same side of each line, the saw cutting only to the center of the line. The rip saw should be used at about the angle shown in Fig. 50 and not as in Fig. 51. It may be seen readily that the saw is cutting through less material in Fig. 50 than in Fig. 51, that is to say, when a piece one inch in thickness is being ripped if the saw is held at an angle of 75 degrees the line of contact of teeth would be about one and one-fourth inches, and in case it is held at 35 degrees it would be cutting through about two and one-half inches. Great care should be taken to keep the sides of the saw at a right angle to the surface of the piece, so as to follow the line on the bottom or fourtli surface, the same as on the top side or surface No. i.