Essentials of American history

Preface

This work has been prepared to give as thorough a knowledge of the poHtical, industrial, and territorial development of our country as the limits of a text-book would allow. It endeavors to show the part played by all the elements, racial and religious, that have made contributions to American history. The author purposed to hold the scales evenly balanced on all questions and to appreciate the true motives which inspired the actions of our national leaders.

For many valuable suggestions, the Reverend Louis S. Walsh, D.C.L., of Boston, Mass., has the heartiest thanks of the author. He is under especial obligation to Professor Edward Gaylord Bourne, of Yale University ; every chapter of the book has been enriched by his scholarly suggestions and criticisms.

T. B. L.

New York Crrv, July 14, 1902.

Contents

CuAiiKK Page

I. The Great Xavigaioks i

II. The Explorers 21

Chapter I

1. The Voyages of the Northmen. — The first Europeans to visit North America were the Northmen, or Norsemen, who were so named because they Hved in the north of Europe. Some of these daring sailors, without a compass and trusting to the stars, cruised along the coasts of Europe, entered the Mediterranean, and pushed as far east as Constantinople ; others sailed westward to Iceland, where they established prosperous settlements as early as a.d. 874. Trading was carried on between these colonies and the continent of Europe. About a century later villages were built along the coast of Greenland, which the Northmen had in the meantime discovered. While these settlements were being made, missionaries had converted the people of Norway to Christianity.^ Among the converts was Leif Ericson,

1 About 1 1 12 Eric Gnupsson was appointed Bishop of Greenland and Vinland. For three hundred years the Church was maintained in this country with a regular succession of Bishops, but disasters befell the people ; the settlements were attacked repeatedly, and finally destroyed by Eskimos ; the churches fell into decay, and at last all traces of Greenland passed from the knowledge of Europe.

I who had come from Greenland to Norway on a brief visit. On returning home he took priests with him, and Iceland and Greenland were soon converted to Christianity.

2. Leif Ericson discovers Vinland, A.D. looo. — The Norse spirit of adventure was not yet satisfied. Probably about the year lOOO Leif Ericson resolved to go westward in search of a land of which he had heard from Norse navigators. With thirty-five men he sailed to the west and reached an unknown land, beautiful and thickly wooded. Cruising along the coast he cast anchor in a favorable bay and, landing, called the country Vinland from the large quantity of grapes found there. Loading his vessel with lumber, he returned home. The exact site of his landing will probably never be known. ^

It is probable that two other voyages were made to the shores of Vinland, but at length these journeys ceased. The explorations of the Northmen produced no lasting effect, as no colonies were founded and Vinland was soon forgotten.

3. Europe in the Fifteenth Century. — The latter half of the fifteenth century is a period of the greatest importance in the world's history. France, which had been waging war with England for one hundred years, was now at the beginning of a stronger and nobler national

1 Leif Ericson is supposed to have landed in the vicinity of Narragansett bay, but there is nothing to prove that this is true. For a time it was thought that the old mill at Newport was built by the Northmen, but it was proved to be merely a stone windmill built by Governor Arnold in Revolutionary times.

life. Spain by her victories over the Moors enjoyed the first place among European nations.^ With their strong royal power established, the kings of Spain and of France were now ready to embark in enterprises beyond the limits of their kingdoms.

4, Need of a New Route to the Indies. — The trade of Europe was largely with the East, and was in the hands of two Italian city republics, Genoa and Venice. This trade was especially valuable, as the East supplied Europe with dyestuffs, shawls, spices, precious stones, ivory, and silks. The Genoese sailed to Constantinople, whence their vessels crossed the Black sea and met the caravans that came overland from the East or up the valley of the Tigris and the Euphrates. The Venetians controlled the southern route, with Alexandria as the chief port. This route through the Red sea and the Indian ocean was almost entirely by water.

The wealth of this trade was so great that the two republics waged, during two hundred years, bitter warfare for the supremacy of the sea. In 1453 a great disaster occurred in the East. A barbaric Tartar tribe called the Turks, who had overrun Asia Minor for two hundred years and for a century had been intrenched in eastern Europe, appeared before the walls of Constantinople. They besieged the mighty city with two hundred thousand men, and it fell after a short resistance. The cross, the emblem of Christianity, on the Church

1 Printing had recently been invented, but books were still costly. The mariner's compass and other instruments for navigation were just coming into use.

of St. Sophia was replaced by the crescent, the emblem of Mohammedanism, and it remains to this day. Thus the gateway to the Black sea was in the hands of the barbaric Turks; the route of the Genoese traders was closed, and

SOUTHERN ROUTE

MIDDLE ROUTE ++ + + +

NORTHERN ROUTE

Routes of Trade between India and Cities of Southern Europe

commerce by the Venetian route was made even more difficult by the levy of excessive transit dues in Egypt.

5. Knowledge of the East ; the Franciscans and Marco Polo. — Men now sought anxiously a new route to the Indies, but their knowledge of the East was very vague. While the merchants of Genoa and Venice had been pushing their trade into Asia they had learned a little of the geography of these lands, and travelers had told of their wonderful experiences in the far East. In the middle of the thirteenth century Franciscan monks had visited the great khan, or emperor, of China and had seen the great ocean that formed, they declared, the eastern boundary of Asia.

In 1295, Marco Polo, a Venetian, returned to his native city after an absence of twenty-four years. He had spent these long years in traveling in the East, going overland through Asia to farthest China, where he lived for seventeen years at the court of the great khan. He returned by water to the Persian gulf and then overland to his native city. When he arrived no one knew him after so many years. His clothes were ragged and worn. Presently he drew forth precious stones and gold of great value and related the story of his wonderful exploits. He described India, China, the island of Cipango, or Japan, and told of the marvelous riches of the East. This narrative gradually became known and began in the fifteenth century to exert a wide influence in awakening the desire of men to reach this golden land. Many plans were proposed, but none were successful until the great discoverer Christopher Columbus announced his belief in a westward route to the Indies.

6. Christopher Columbus ; his Visit to Portugal. — In the fair city of Genoa, Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of the New World, was born. At this time Genoa was the center of seafaring life. Her merchant vessels were on every ocean, and her men-of-war were constantly engaged in fighting Turks and pirates. Columbus was the son of an humble weaver and in the midst of the sailor life around him developed an earnest love of the sea. It is said, upon rather doubtful authority however, that he attended the University of Padua for two years, in which time he became well versed in Latin, geography, astronomy, mathematics, and drawing. At fourteen years of age he became a sailor. For twenty-three years

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Christopher Columbus he lived the perilous life of the mariner, at times fighting the pirates that overran the Mediterranean, at times battling with the Turks. About 1473 he reached Lisbon in Portugal, at that time the chief center of the spirit of discovery and adventure in Europe. The navigators and explorers here told of their wonderful journeys; the

State spent large sums of money in spreading geographical knowledge, and the science of navigation absorbed the minds of the citizens in their endeavors to find a new and shorter route to the Indies. Columbus suggested a solution of the problem. ^

7. Columbus proposes to sail West. — The world is round like a ball, he said, and by sailing directly west you can easily reach the East Indies. The common people believed the earth to be flat, but astronomers and learned men knew it was round. They had watched the vessels sink beneath the horizon ; they had seen the shadow of the earth in the eclipse of the moon, and they knew that the old Grecian philosophers and astronomers had declared the world to be round. Columbus studied the subject deeply and read what books he could get. He had often heard that wonderful, strange things had been washed ashore on the Cape Verde islands and other places by the waves of the Atlantic, — pieces of carved wood, huge trunks of pine trees, gigantic reeds, and especially the bodies of two strange copper- colored men.

8. Motives of Columbus ; he leaves Portugal and seeks the Aid of Spain. — Columbus was a man of deeply

1 While in Lisbon, Columbus had earned a living by making maps and charts. In 1474 he wrote to a great Florentine geographer, Dr. Paolo Toscanelli, for a map which he had made, showing the route to Asia and Japan. This map was based on one made in 1459 by Fra Mauro, an eminent Italian monk and geographer, which may be seen to this day in the Doge's Palace in Venice. Toscanelli sent the desired map to him with letters of explanation. This map would have been .singularly correct had not the continent of America been directly in the way. Columbus used this map on his journey. In 187 1 the International Geographical Congress in Antwerp gave Toscanelli the title of " Inspirer of the Discovery of America."

religious nature. He had made profound studies in the sciences, but the leading motive of his life was the hope of seeing the Catholic religion believed by all the peoples of the world. He desired to spread the truths of the Gospel among the heathen nations and to plant the cross in distant lands.^

In 1 48 1 John n ascended the throne of Portugal and Columbus unfolded to him his plans. The king referred them to a learned council of his court, but they were rejected.

In despair Columbus now left Portugal. It is thought he visited Genoa and Venice, and finally started for Spain to seek the aid of Ferdinand and Isabella. In i486 he arrived at the royal court in Cordova. At this time Spain was preparing for the battles against the Moors, and the preparations for the war and the excitement of the times delayed his reception by the king and queen. Finally he was invited to appear before them and to unfold his wondrous plans for the new route to Asia. The Spanish sovereigns called a council of learned men at the University of Salamanca to examine the charts and plans. They rejected the scheme as visionary. At length in 1491, five years after his arrival, Columbus resolved to leave Spain ^ and seek the aid of France.

1 " He freely asserted his conviction," says Tarducci, '^ that he had been chosen by God from his earliest years to carry out two great undertakings: the discovery of a westward route to the Indies and, as a crusader, to recover the Holy Sepulchre from the Turks."

2 So well known was Columbus that the boys ran after him in the streets and called him a madman.

With his son, Diego,^ he started heartbroken on his dreary journey.

9. Secures the Aid of Queen Isabella. — A short distance from Palos^ he saw the Franciscan monastery of La Rabida.^ Foot-sore and hungry he asked for aid and had the good fortune to meet the prior, Father Juan Perez,'* who had been the confessor of Queen Isabella. Father Perez listened eagerly to the story of Columbus and believed in his projects. He visited the queen at once, and, returning, asked Columbus to go with him to the court. They set out together and soon reached Granada, when a new council was called. In this council sat the confessors of the royal household Talavera^ and the great Dominican Deza,^ for twenty years the faithful friend and protector of Columbus, the Archbishop of Toledo, and many others, all of whom actively favored the enterprise. But the terms demanded '^ by Columbus were considered too great and in despair he left Granada. Father Santangel,^ however, hastened to Queen Isabella and persuaded her to agree to the terms of Columbus, A messenger was sent on a fleet horse, and Columbus was recalled. The queen granted his demands, offering, if

2 Palos (Pah'loce). ^ Talavera (Tah-lah-vay'rah).

3 La Rabida (Lah Rah'bee-dah). ^ Deza (Dey'thah).

' In return for the services he would render, Columbus demanded to be made admiral of the ocean, and governor of the islands and lands he would discover and to receive one tenth of the pearls, gold, precious stones, and other valuables found. Columbus vowed to devote this treasure to the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher from the Turks. ^ Santangel (Sahnt-ahn'hell).

lO ESSENTIALS OF AMERICAN HISTORY

it were necessary, to sell her crown jewels to secure sufficient money for the voyage.^

10. The Great Voyage. — Many difficulties still beset the daring navigator. Sailors were afraid to cross unknown seas, a distance of two thousand five hundred miles,^ as Columbus believed, inhabited, they had been informed, by fearful monsters. After great efforts he gathered ninety men for his three small vessels, which he called the Pinta, the Santa Maria^ and the Nina. «. On the third of August, 1492, all was ready for the great journey. At sunrise, while the whole population crowded the shore, Columbus received the final blessing of his devoted friend, the prior of La Rabida, hoisted sail, and with his three little vessels went forth on perhaps the most momentous journey of history.

The first point reached was the Canary islands, where they were delayed three weeks for repairs. On the sixth of September, 1492, they sailed directly westward, and the terrified sailors saw the land disappear behind them and the unknown waste of waters around them on every side. New terrors constantly arose. They feared they might meet the monsters said to inhabit these

1 Washington Irving declares Isabella to be one of the purest and most beautiful characters in the pages of history.

2 It is indeed fortunate that Columbus did not know how far away India really was. Had he known it was ten thousand miles distant, it would probably have been impossible to secure ships and men even if he himself had had the courage to face such a journey.

^ The Santa Maria (Mah-ree'ah) was a single-decked vessel and was commanded by Columbus. Neither the Pinta (Peen'tah) nor the AHna (Neen'yah) was decked amidships. They were commanded by the Pinzon brothers.

regions; they believed if the world were round they could not sail up its sides again. Columbus had to cheer their spirits,^ overcome their fears, and rule with a firm hand the crews, daily becoming mutinous.^ Day after day they sailed westward, borne onward by the strong trade winds and the ocean currents. Fortunately after about four weeks they saw signs, indicating that land must be near, and on the evening of Oct. 1 1, 1492, Columbus saw a moving light in the distance. On the following morning the welcome cry, " Land ! " arose. A new world had been discovered.

11. The Landing of Columbus, Oct. 12, 1492. — Holding in his hand the banner of Spain, Columbus landed on the shore and took possession in the name of the Spanish sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. He called the land San Salvador (Holy Redeemer).^ It was one of the islands called the Bahamas, but the exact island will

1 The story that Columbus promised to turn back if land were not found in three days is not in keeping with the resoluteness of Columbus' character and is not generally believed by historical students.

2 On October 7, Pinzon, noticing a flock of birds flying to the southwest, believed these l)irds were headed toward land and urged Columbus to change his course in that direction. He finally consented. It is probable, had he not made this change, he would have drifted with the Gulf Stream northward and sighted the stormy coasts of the Carolinas instead of the Bahamas. By making this change in his course he had only five hundred miles to travel before land would be sighted ; had he continued on a straight course, at least seven hundred miles would have had to be covered and dire results might have arisen from mutiny and other causes.

3 To the first island I discovered, I gave the name of San Salvador, in commemoration of His Divine Majesty, who has wonderfully granted all this. — Lette?- of Colutnbiis.

probably never be known. The natives were unlike any people he had ever seen. Believing he had reached the East Indies, he called the natives Indians. He now sailed southward and quickly reached the large island of Cuba, and the island of Haiti, which he named Hispaniola. Here his best vessel, the Sa7tta Maria, was wrecked. Desiring to return to Spain, he built here a fort from the timbers of his wrecked vessel and, leaving a small colony of forty men, sailed on his homeward journey.

12. Return of Columbus. — Columbus reached Palos on the 15th of March, 1493. The fame of his wonderful discoveries spread like wildfire. He was summoned to Barcelona to the presence of the king and queen and was received in triumph. He presented to them some of the wonders of the New World, — gold, birds, beasts, plants, and a few Indians whom he had brought back with him. A solemn Mass and Te Deum were sung in thanksgiving for his great achievements, and the king and queen fell on their knees in homage to God for the benefits granted to their kingdom. On Columbus were showered most signal honors. He was appointed admiral, the king's viceroy in the New World, and was to receive one tenth of all the gold and precious stones found in the new possessions. ^

13. Later Voyages of Columbus. — In September, 1 493 , only seven months after his return, he set out once more across the western seas. Those who had scoffed at his first voyage now sought to accompany him on his second journey. He founded a colony on the present island of Haiti and discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico, and the islands of the Caribbean sea.^ In the following year he made a third voyage, discovering the island of Trinidad and the Orinoco river. His efforts to find a way into the Indian ocean had been unsuccessful. The popular discontent at the failure to find gold^ increased daily, and the cost of the voyages was so great that the court lost interest in him.-'^

He made one more attempt. In 1502 he sailed westward, visiting Honduras and the isthmus of Panama. He died broken-hearted, in neglect, on May 20, 1506. To the hour of his death he believed he had reached Asia by the best and most direct route. He never knew he had given to mankind a new world.

14. John Cabot's Voyage. — In the meantime the discoveries of Columbus stirred other adventurous spirits.

1 The unfortunate natives, by a system of slavery, were kept by the Spaniards in the mines at hard labor until they perished by thousands. Bartolome de Las Casas, the noble Dominican, with all his power tried to better the condition -of the natives. In this noble work he was assisted by Father Antonio Montesino, another Dominican. The names of Las Casas and Montesino will ever be remembered by those whose hearts beat for a suffering humanity.

2 When Columbus touched at Santo Domingo he was arrested on false charges by the Spanish governor and, being placed in chains, was sent to Spain. The captain of the ship desired to remove them; but Columbus refused, and he wore them till he reached the court, where Isabella cordially received the old admiral and with tears in her eyes ordered the removal of the chains. Full justice was not done him, however, as he never again obtained the powers granted in his contract.

3 The Portuguese had been trying for many years to find a water route to India by sailing around Africa. At last Vasco da Gama doubled the cape of Good Hope and in 1498 reached India. As a result of this discovery, popular interest was lost in the achievements of Columbus.

There resided in England an Italian, John Cabot ^ by name, who was commissioned by Henry VII, king of England, to seek a northern route for the spice trade. Cabot sailed from Bristol May, 1497, in a single vessel and discovered the continent of America, probably on the coast of Labrador, June 24. Believing he had discovered Asia, he landed and, erecting a large cross bearing aloft the flag of England, he claimed the entire country in behalf of the king of England. A year later, April, 1498, with his son Sebastian Cabot, he returned and explored the coast as far south as perhaps Cape Hatteras.2 These voyages are most important, as they gave England a claim to the Atlantic seaboard and the right to colonize North America, although one hundred years were allowed to pass before a permanent settlement was made.

15. Division of the World. — After the return of Columbus from his great voyage Spain and Portugal began to disagree as to the ownership of lands yet to be discovered. The matter was referred to His Holiness Pope Alexander VI by the sovereigns of the nations. To settle the conflicting claims, the Pope finally divided the world ^ by a meridian line drawn very nearly

1 Cabot (Cab'ot). His name in Italian was Caboto-.

- On his return Cabot was called the " Great Admiral " and was dressed in beautiful silks. For giving him the title to North America, the king presented him with fifty dollars and a pension, to be paid for, however, by the port of Bristol.

2 At first this imaginary line was drawn from pole to pole one hundred leagues west of the Azores or the Cape Verde islands, but King John of Portugal was dissatisfied. In 1494 the line was drawn three hundred and seventy leagues from the Cape Verde islands. This midway through the Atlantic. He gave to Portugal all pagan lands discovered by the Portuguese east of this line, and to Spain all pagan lands west of it.^

16. The Voyage of Vasco da Gama to India ; Cabral's Journey. — Only five years after the discovery of America the Portuguese at last found their long-coveted route around Africa. In 1497 the great captain Vasco da Gama, starting from Lisbon, sailed around the cape of Good Hope and reached India. In 1499 he returned in triumph with his vessels laden with the spices, silks, bronzes, ivory, and precious stones of the East. Da Gama had found the sea route which Columbus had sought in vain. This discovery turned the attention of European navigators to the new route, and for some years no further voyages were made to North America.

Within a few months, however, in 1499, a Portuguese navigator, Cabral,^ sailed with a fleet of thirteen ships for India. He put out boldly to sea and drifted so far

change later gave Portugal title to a part of the South American continent. "As between the Christian nations, the Sovereign Pontiff was the supreme arbiter of conflicting claims ; hence the famous bull issued by Pope Alexander \T in 1493." — Wheatun's Elements of Internatioual Law, Vol. II, Chap. IV.

At thistime practically the entire Christian world was in communion with the See of Rome, and all the early great discoverers — Columbus, Cabot, Vespucius, Da Gama, Magellan, Cabral, and Balboa — were Catholics.

1 Franciscan missionaries came with Columbus to the New World. From time to time their numbers were increased, until they had preached the Gospel from Florida to the Pacific and from the Colorado to Patagonia. In the Antilles, in our southwest, in Mexico, Peru, Chili, Paraguay, and Argentina their monasteries were the center whence civilization and religion flowed to the native tribes. - Cabral (Cah-brahF).

from the African coast that, to his amazement, he sawland to the west one April morning in the year 1500. It was that part of the coast of South America now called Brazil. If it were east of the Line of Demarcation, it belonged to Portugal. He soon discovered that it was east, and sent a vessel back to Lisbon with the news of his good fortune.

17. Americus Vespucius. — The king of Portugal acted promptly. He fitted out a fleet of three ships and gave the command of it to a Florentine merchant and traveler, Americus Vespucius.^ In May, 1501, the fleet sailed westward from Lisbon, sighting South America at cape St. Roque in Brazil. They skirted the coast as far south as the river La Plata. Vespucius now turned southward to keep east of the Line of Demarcation and sailed until the Antarctic ice fields blocked his way. He then returned to Lisbon.

18. The Name of America. — Vespucius made another voyage to the southern continent, and in 1504 published an account of what he had seen in the New World. His voyages were of great importance.- They proved the existence of a new continent, secured Brazil for the Portuguese crown, and resulted in giving the name

1 Americus Vespucius (Amei'icus Vespu'cius) is a Latinized form of the navigator's name, the Italian form being Amerigo Vespucci (Ah-mahree'go Ves-poot'chee). Vespucius is said to have been the pilot of a fleet, commanded by Pinzon, one of Columbus' old officers, which, sailing in 1497, visited Honduras, entered the gulf of Mexico, and passing between Cuba and Florida explored the coast as far north as Chesapeake bay, thus sighting the mainland of the New World before Columbus or the Cabots. Many historians, however, do not believe Vespucius ever made this journey.

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America to the western hemisphere. The description of the new world which he had made fell into the hands of a German, Martin Waldseemuller,^ a teacher of geography in a little college at St. Die,^ in eastern France. In 1507 the paper of Vespucius was printed on the college press and contained the suggestion that the new-found land should be named America in honor of Americus Vespucius, as Waldseemiiller supposed Vespucius had discovered it. The name was placed on the maps of that time ; at first only on Brazil, later on South America, and still later was given to the whole western hemisphere. Thus Columbus was deprived of the great honor of having his name given to the new world he had discovered.

19. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean, 1513. — In the year 1513a Spanish navigator and adventurer, Balboa, hoped to repair his broken fortunes by seeking the wealth of the New World. While exploring the isthmus of Panama, he was told by an Indian chief of a great sea to the west beyond the mountains and of lands whose shores were filled with gold and silver. Balboa thereupon pushed eagerly onward and reaching the crest of the ridge July 25, 15 13, saw ^ before him the greatest of

2 St. Die (San De-ay').

^ It was a sight in beholding which for the first time any man would wish to be alone. Balboa had his men sit down while he ascended and then in solitude looked down on the vast Pacific. Falling on his knees, he gave thanks to God for the favor shown to him in his being permitted to discover the Sea of the South. Then he beckoned to his men to come up. Both he and they knelt down and poured forth their thanks to God. — Sir Arthur Helps.

earth's oceans. On reaching the shore he waded into the sea and claimed possession of this vast body of water, together with all the bordering lands, for the crown of Spain. As the sea was south of the isthmus of Panama where he stood, he called it the South sea to distinguish it from the North sea, as the Caribbean was called by the Spaniards.

20. The Voyage of Magellan. — Seven years later a native of Portugal, P'erdinand Magellan, having had some differences with his king, offered his services to Charles V of Spain, declaring his ability to find a shorter route to the rich Spice islands than was known to the world. The fleet of five ships was fitted out and sailed westward. Believing that he could find south of the La Plata river a strait leading to the South sea, he skirted the coast of South America until he entered the straits which have since borne his name.

He soon reached the great waste of waters named by Balboa the South sea, but which he called the Pacific ocean because it was so calm.^ Sailing across this broad ocean, he discovered the Philippines. In an encounter with the natives of these islands he lost his life. The journey was continued under one of