Physiology by the laboratory method, for secondary schools

Front matter

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Preface

A pbominent educator lias said that modern education consists of the three L's rather than of the three R's ; i. e., of the laboratory, the lecture, and the library.

While this ideal cannot be realized in its fullness except in our universities and larger colleges, its basal principles are applicable to all grades of instruction. In other words, we study things and phenomena, not books.

The lecture, the library, and the text are to confirm, extend, and supplement the work of the laboratory. The text-book becomes, then, not something to be learned by rote, but something to assist the pupil in his inquiry for truth, and should contain such a statement of the subject considered as will answer all reasonable inquiries relative to an elementary notion of the subject considered. It should contain such information as will enable the student to complete and organize the facts gathered by observation in experiment, and as will awaken a desire to know more.

In our enthusiasm over method we should not forget that we study to know, as well as to have power to do, and especially is this true in the study of the human body. We have the control and guidance of the most wonderful of mechanisms, and Avhile it is important that we use correct methods in obtaining information in regard to this mechanism, it is of vital importance that we possess sufficient knowledge of its structure and actions to secure to ourselves, under ordinary conditions, good health. Such certainly cannot be secured by a mere statement of facts of hygiene, but only by such a knowledge of the structure and principles of the body's normal action as will enable us to treat our bodies in a rational manner.

The author has given a number of subjects a fuller treatment than is commonly given to them in works of this grade, as experience has shown that pupils cannot form a

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Introduction ...... 1

Experiments and Demonstrations. — Classes of bodies; surface features of the body; cavities of the body; systems of the body.

Appendix

I. Histological methods and reagents.

II. General rules of dissection.

III. Common tests.

IV. Poisons; names; symptoms and antidotes. V. Contagious disease; how to disinfect.

VI. Accidents.

VII. List of apparatus.

VIII. Books for reference.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Pig. 1. Regions of the Body

A. Anterior View.

B. Posterior View.

2. Transverse Section of Necturus

3. Section of the Bod}- on Median Line (Plate I)

4. Transverse Section of the Body (Plate I)

5. Superficial Viscera

C. Deep Viscera

7. Systems of the Body (Diagram)

8. Epithelial Tissue

9. Ciliated Epithelium

10. Columnar Epithelium

11. Pavement Epithelium

12. Prickle Cells

13. Cross-Section of Skeletal Muscle

14. Skeletal Muscle

15. Unstriped Muscle

1C. Heart Muscle

17. White Fibrous Tissue

18. Yellow Elastic Tissue

19. Adipose Tissue

20. Hyaline Cartilage

21. Cellular Cartilage

22. Bone, Transverse Section

23. Bone, Long Section

24. Gelatinous Tissue

23. Glandular Tissue

2G. Goblet Cells

27. Amoeba

28. Internal Cell Division

29. The Centrosome

30. Indirect Cell Division .

31. Stages of Development

32. The Typical Cell

33. Muscle Curve Apparatus

34. Forms of Muscles

34a. Classes of Levers

35. Muscles of the Neck (Plate II)

36. Muscles of the Face (Plate II)

37. Muscles of Mastication (Plate II)

Page.

G

Xll

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

675,

72. 73.

74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79.

Muscles of Mastication (Plate II)

Muscles of the Back (Plate III)

Muscles of the Back (Plate III)

Muscles of the Trunk (Plate IV)

Abdominal Muscles (Plate IV)

Muscles of the Arm (Plate V)

Muscles of the Forearm (Plate V)

Muscles of the Thigh (Plate VI)

Muscles of the Leg (Plate VI)"

Muscles of the Leg (Plate VI)

Typical Muscle

The Muscle Fiber

Distribution of Blood Vessels to Muscle Fibers

Distribution of Nerves to Muscle Fibers

Muscle Curve .....

Tetanus Curve ....

General View of Spinal Cord

Transverse Section of Spinal Cord in Different Regions

(a) Cervical

{b) Dorsal

(c) JLumbar Motor and Sensory Tracts of Spinal Cord Distribution of Spinal Nerve Origin of Spinal Nerves Old Idea of Reflex Action Mechanism of Reflex Action Section of Brain on Median Line Inferior Surface of Brain Superior Surface of Brain Ventricles of the Brain Transverse Vertical Section of the Brain Vertical Section of the Brain Coverings of the Brain Coverings of the Brain Side View of Medulla Posterior View of Medulla . ■ Relation of Fibers of the Cerebro-Spinal System (Plate

VII)

Sensory and Motor Tracts of the Cord (Plate VIII)

Course of Fibers in Brain and Spinal Cord (Plate IX)

Course of Fibers in Brain (Plate X)

Superficial Origin of Cranial Nerves

Deep Origin of Cranial Nerves

Lobes of the Brain (Plate XI)

Microscopic Structure of the Brain

Cerebral Localization (Plate XII)

Sympathetic Nerves, Plexuses

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

80. Sympathetic Nerves .

81. Section of Pneumogastric Nerves

82. Nerve Fibers.

(a) Medullated

{b) Non-medullated

S3. Nerve Cells .

84. The Olfactory Bulb

85. The Neuron ....

86. The Skeleton .

87. Side View of the Skull

88. Front View of the Skull

89. Base of Skull Exterior

90. Base of Skull Interior .

91. Occipital Bone

92. Sphenoid Bone

93. Temporal Bone

94. Superior Maxillary

95. Inferior Maxillary

96. The Spine ....

97. Parts of the Vertebra.

(a) Side View

(b) Seen from Below

98. The Atlas ...

99. The Axis .

100. The Trunk ....

101. The Scapula ....

102. The Humerus . . •

103. The Radius and Ulna .

104. The Carpal and Metacarpal Bones

105. The Pelvis ....

106. The Femur .

107. The Tibia and Fibula .

109. Longitudinal Section of Long Bones i .

110. The Alimentary Canal .

111. The Pharynx .

112. The Peritoneum

113. Cardiac Glands .

114. Pyloric Glands .

115. Diagram of Newrous Mechanism of Alimentary Canal

116. Mucous Membrane of Small Intestine

117. Longitudinal Section of Villus . . . .

118. Cross-section of Villus .

119. The Salivary Glands .

120. The Sublingual Gland .

121. The Liver

122. Structure of the Lobule of Liver

XIV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

123. Hepatic Cells ....

124. The Portal Circulation

125. Opening of Hepatic and Pancreatic Duct

126. The Pancreas and Spleen

127. Diagram of Circulation (Plate XTII) .

128. Position of the Heart .

129. The Heart (Plate XIV)

130. Section of Heart to Right Auricle and Ventricle (Plate

XIV)

131. The Principal Arteries and Veins (Plate XV)

132. Diagram of the Relative Area of Total Cross-section of the

Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins .

133. Artery, Cross-section ....

134. Capillaries (Tail of Tadpole) .

135. Mechanism of Circulation

136. The Pulse Curve .

137. Blood Corpuscles ....

138. The Lymphatic Duct . .

139. Structure of Lymphatic Gland 140a.The Lungs ..... 1406. Microscopic Structure ....

141. The Diaphragm .

142. The Skin

143. Vertical Section of Hair Follicle

144. Vertical Section of Hair Follicle (Magnified)

145. The Finger Nail ....

146. Magnified Section through Nail

147. The Tooth, Vertical Section .

148. Longitudinal Section of Kidney 149a.Malpighian Body . 1496. Microscopic Structure of the Kidney

150. Tactile Corpuscles ....

151. The Tongue ..... 152a. The Papillae of the Tongue . 1526. Vertical Section of the Circumvallate Papillae

153. Taste Bulb . . . .

154. Nasal Fossa and Distribution of Olfactory Nerve

155. Section through Nasal Fossa .

156. Olfactory Cells .....

157. Lachrymal Apparatus .

158. Coats of the Eyeball .... 159a. Diagram of the Elementary Structure of the Retina 1596. Layers of the Retina .

160. Blood Vessels of Eyeball (Plate XVI)

161. Muscles of the Eye

162. Irradiation, Astigmatism, Test Type, Test for the "Blind

Spot," Defective Visual Judgment

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XV

163. Optics of Vision .....

164. The Nervous Apparatus of Vision in Man (Plate XVII)

165. The Theory of Color Vision .

166. General View of the Ear

167. The Internal Ear ....

168. Structure of the Cochlea

169. Section through One of the Coils of the Cochlea

170. Auditory Hairs .....

171. The Larynx, Posterior View (Plate XVIII) .

172. Anterior of the Larynx (Plate XVIII)

173. Ventricles of the Larynx (Plate XVIII)

174. The Vocal Cords (Plate XVIII)

APPENDIX.

175. 176. 177. 178.

Parts of the Microscope ..... 458

Illustrations of Various Disease Germs . . . 482

The Xovy Apparatus for Formaldehyde Disinfection , 487

Diagram Showing Relative Number of Deaths from Various Diseases ...... 489

Low "Water in Wells and Sickness from Typhoid Fever in

Resuscitation ....... 495

(a) Inspiration.

(b) Expiration.

Treatment of the Drowned . 497

Position 1.

Position 2.

Position 3.

Physiology

By the Laboratory Method,

Chapter I. Experiments And Demonstrations

Classes of Bodies. — 1. Examine carefully a pebble, a blade of grass, and a fly, or other insect, and make a list of the things in which they differ.

2. Place some sand and some wheat grains in a box where they will be free from moisture and sunlight. Put some grains of sand and some grains of wheat in soil which you have placed in a box of convenient size, and put in a warm place where they will have plenty of sunlight. Keep them well watered. Examine them every day, and note any changes that take place. How do you account for the difference in what takes place? Why do they each remain unchanged in the first case ? What have you learned that is essential to the life and growth of the wheat grain? What would happen if you should place a grasshopper or a fly in a box where it could get only soil, water, air, and sunlight ? Why ? What do the grasshopper and the fly live on i What does this teach ?

3. Plant some seeds of the bunch bean or dwarf pea, and note carefully what takes place. Are all the parts alike ? Can you think why the parts are not alike ? why the leaf differs from the stem, or the roots, or the flower ?

4. Get some snail's eggs or frog's eggs, and put them in a vessel of water in a warm place. Carefully watch them from time to time. What do you learn from these observations ?

A body which behaves like the grain of sand is called a mineral ; one like the grain of wheat or the bean, a plant ; and one like the fly, an animal. Make a list of the things you have observed of each.

Query 1. Upon what are plants dependent for their life and growth ? the animals ?

Query 2. What would happen to plants were there no soil ? To animals if there were no plants ? Why do we need to study animals?

5. Prepare for dissection a rat or a rabbit as directed in the Appendix. Notice the general plan. If you should divide the body into halves (right and left) on a middle {median) line drawn from above downward, how would the two parts compare ? What name shall we give to the front surface of the body ? to the rear surface ? Into what parts is the front surface divided ? How is the rear surface divided? Examine diagram, Fig. 1.

6. Examine transverse section of a tadpole or a salamander, prepared as directed in the Appendix. Notice (1) a large cavity, (2) a small cavity. How do they differ in their boundaries? The larger cavity is called the ventral, or hcemal (Eig. 2) ; the smaller, the neural, or dorsal, cavity.

7. Begin at the chin, and divide on a median line the anterior surface of the specimen of Experiment 5, carrying the line to the upper part of the pelvis. Examine the contents of the cavities thus exposed. Into how many parts is the cavity divided, and by what kind of membrane? By means of the diagram (Eigs. 5 and 6) learn the names of the parts {organs) contained in the cavities. Notice form, size, and relation of each. Make an outline drawing of the cavities and their contents.

8. Remove the skin from the back part of the skull and the back. Saw into the skull-cavity, or remove the bone by means of the bone forceps so as to expose the contents of the cavity. Continue the line down the back, cutting away the bones with bone forceps, to near the end of the backbone (vertebral column). Determine the name of the organs contained in these cavities. (See Eig. 3.)

9. Remove a small portion of the skin from the leg or soles of the rabbit. (It is best, however, to shave off the hair from the part from which you take the portion of skin before removing it.) Elarden the specimen by placing it in a, two-per-cent solution of chromic acid for a week. Then transfer to sixty- and then eighty-per-cent alcohol. Make a vertical section, and stain in picrocarmine, mount section in glycerin, and observe that it is made up of two portions, the outer one of which is composed of little bodies (cells) more or less rounded, the inner of fibrous material.

10. Take out some of the flesh (muscular tissue), and examine the little fibers first with a two-thirds and then with a one-fifth objective.

11. Examine a prepared section of the posterior ganglion of the spinal nerve of a cat ; also a section of the spinal cord. Xotice the numerous little bodies which make up the greater part of the substance of these bodies.

12. Examine a vertical section of the tongue of a cat. Xotice the structure of the membrane (mucous membrane) which covers it. Observe that in Experiments 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 we have examined organs whose essential structure is cellular. We class such organs in the Cellular System. See if you can determine what organs belong to this system.

13. Take the specimen used in Experiment 5. Place the animal upon its back. Xotice the tube-like body (trachea) in front, in the neck; trace it to some of its smaller branches. Of what do the lungs seem to be chiefly composed ?

Xotice what kind of vessels come to it and go from it. Do you know what these tubes are called % Trace the larger ones for some distance. What do you learn?

Remove the lungs and heart. Examine the tube (esophagus) lying back of them. Trace it in its course through the body. Xotice that while it is expanded in some parts and contracted in others it is in reality a single long tube.

11. Examine a prepared section of the skin with a one-fourth objective. Xotice the little knot of tubes (sweat glands) originating in the lower part of the skin and passing upward and opening on its surface.

What do you think would be a good name for the system which includes organs whose essential structure is that of tubes or modified tubes ? See if you can find other organs than those we have examined which belong to this system.

15. Remove the skin of the cat or rabbit you have been studying. Xotice how it is attached to the body. How is the flesh (muscles) bound together? What is it that gives firmness and support to the limbs ? Examine the organs in the abdominal cavity, and notice how they are bound together. Why are they so carefully bound together ? What seems to be the use of these structures ? To this system we give the name of the Skeletal System. It may seem to you that we have grouped together things which are very much unlike; our later study, however, will show us they are very closely related in structure and origin.

16. Examine the teeth, tongue, and muscles of the face, jaws, and salivary glands. How do they compare in form and structure ? Can you think of anything they work together to perform ? Do you know what we call such a group of organs ? See if you can find other groups of organs, differing in structure and form, which act together to do a common work. Such a group of organs is called an apparatus. Examine Eig. 7, and see how your observations agree with the statements made there.

THE HUMAN BODY.