Lessons in commercial fruit growing; a text-book for beginners

Preface

This book, like its predecessor, "Principles of Plant Culture," has grown up in the class rooni. As in that work, the text is briefly stated, with the expectation that the instructor will amplify it by questions aiidby additional facts from his experience, observati'on or reading. This book is intended as a supplement to " Principles of Plant Culture," hence information given in that book is not repeated here, as a rule.

While good horticultural books are much more numerous than they were a quarter of a century ago, the author has been able to find no single book that presents concisely the information he desires to give his students in fruit growing. This is his apology for offering another book. It is hoped that the topical arrangement of the subject matter, the cross-references, the summaries following the chapters or sections, and the suggestions for laboratory work will commend this book to other instructors,

A list of books is appended at the end (page 212), for the benefit of those who desire to pursue the subjects further.

Madison, Wis., Feb. 1, 1902. E. S. GOFF.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Figures 21, 23, 26, 30, 31, 32, 84, 35, 36, 37. 38 and 39 are from " The Priming Book," by Prof. L. H. Bailey, and are used by permission of Prof. Bailey, and his publishers, The Macmillan Company, of New York. Some of these were redrawn and slightly modified.

Figures 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 24, 27, 40, 41, 45, 47 and 48 are from " Insects Injurious to Fruits," by Prof. William Saunders, F. R. S. C, and were purchased from the publishers of that book, the J. B. Lippincott Compa?iy, of Philadelphia, Pa.

Figures 19, 25, 33, 42 and 43 were purchased from the Wells, Higman Company, of Saint Joseph, Mich.

Figure 15 is used by permission of Dr. L. 0. Howard, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Figure 18 is from a plate loaned by the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, through Prof. Wm. B. Alwood.

The books mentioned on page 212, and a few others, have been freely consulted in the preparation of this work, and the assistance thus gained is gratefully acknowledged.

Chapter I

1. Definitions. Thfe word fruity as used in American horticulture, may be defined as the edible part of a perennial plant that is closely connacted in its development with the flower. This definition includes the nuts, which for convenience, are now classed with fruits in matters relating to culture. Pomology ox fruit growing is the art or science of raising fruit. Commercial fruit groiving i^ the raising of fruit primarily as a means of earning a livelihood. It includes the raising, the handling and the marketing of fruits, especially in large quantities.

2. Present condition of fruit growing:. Fruit growing in the United States and Canada is now passing through a transition period, especially as regards the tree fruits. The old-time farm orchard is slowly 'disappearing. The production of fruit, however, is rapidly increasing, but the increase is due mainly to the establishment of large commercial orchards. Fruit growing, in other words, is following in the line of other industries and is being more and more conducted on a large scale, and often with combined capital and according to strict business methods. As the result, fruit is being produced more cheaply, and of better quality than formerly.

3. The education required. Commercial fruit growing requires education along two distinct lines. 1st. The person wlio grows the fruit needs a knowledge of plant life and plant development, especially in relation to the particular plants he desires to grow; and 2d, the person who attends to the business matters connected with the growing and disposition of the fruit needs a knowledge of business methods in general, and especially as related to the handling and marketing of fruit. A knowledge of vegetable physiology, of chemistry and physics as applied to agriculture, and of controlling the parasitic enemies of fruit plants forms the basis for the first kind of education; a knowledge of commercial methods, including bookkeeping, and of packing and shipping fruit forms the basis for the second.

Some knowledge of the manufacture of fruits into secondary products is also important.

Success in commercial fruit growing will depend much upon the extent to which these two kinds of education are combined. The same individual need not possess education in both lines; indeed both are often in demand at the same time and in different places. If an extensive fruit business is undertaken, it will be better to have one person make a specialty of each of these departments.

The foundation for the first kind of knowledge is best attained in an agricultural college; that for the second in a business college. Both should be supplemented by practical work for a time in a successful commercial fruit business.

4. The outlook for commercial fruit growing:. Both the production and the consumption of fruit are increasing in most civilized countries. The methods of production, storage, distribution, manufacture and preserving of fruits tend to improve and to become cheaper. The number of persons who are able to appreciate and to pay for strictly choice fruit is increasing. The opportunities for business success in fruit growing are perhaps as numerous and as favorable as in any other productive industry. There is plenty of "room at the top." It is doubtful, however, if one branch •of productive industry will prove permanently more remunerative than another. Aside from personal aptitudes and tastes, which should never be ignored, an occupation is desirable in proportion as it promotes the broadest development of those who follow it. Yiewed from this standpoint, few occupations are more desirable than commercial fruit growing.

5. The kinds of fruit grown will depend somewhat upon whether a location is to be selected, or ground already •owned is to be used. In the first case the market and the personal tastes of the grower should be considered, and the location selected that is best adapted to the chosen fruit or fruits. In the second case the adaptability of the different fruits to the soil and climate of the tract to be used, should first be considered. As a rule the fruit will pay best that is best adapted to the soil and climate. It is generally wiser to grow two or more fruits than to depend upon one, as the chances of crop failure are thereby reduced.

6, The choice of a location. This will necessarily depend much upon the particular fruit or fruits it is desired to produce. The location chosen, however, should be governed by two principal considerations, viz.: 1st, the favorableness of the soil and climate to the production of the fruit or fruits it is desired to produce, and 2d, the opportunities for marketing the fruits.

1st. The conditions of soil and climate required differ greatly with different fruits, and will be treated specifically in the proper places, but certain general requirements may be mentioned here.

a. Length of season. The warm season should be sufficiently long to properly mature the fruit or fruits it is desired to grow. The quality of fruits depends more or less upon their receiving a given amount of solar heat during the growth period. Thus the grape only attains its highest quality when grown in a warm climate. Conversely, the season may be too long and warm for the highest quality and best keeping of a given fruit, as is true of the apple in southern United States.

b. Freedom from damaging frosts. This depends more upon local environment than upon latitude. Altitude, aspect and proximity to bodies of water should receive the most careful attention in locating the fruit plantation.*

c. Shelter from j^revailing winds. A location that is sheltered from the prevailing winds by natural barriers, as elevations of ground or forests, is preferable to one not thus sheltered, especially for the tree fruits. In otherwise favorable locations, damage from winds may be in part averted by growing a wind-break on the side of the plantation toward the prevailing winds. (10.) t

2d. The market conditions. The market, to the commercial fruit grower, means the party or parties that buy the fruits, and has no necessary relation to the place where the fruits are consumed. Sometimes the buyer goes to the farm and buys the fruit, even before it is mature; at other times the fruit is shipped a long distance — perhaps across the ocean — before it finds a buyer. The transaction may

* The relation of these conditions to cLamaging frosts is considered in detail in "Principles of Plant Culture."

t A number in parenthesis in the text refers to another paragraph that gives further information on the same subject.

General Consideraiions. 5

be equally profitable in both cases. The market is a less definite and a less stable factor than the conditions of soil and climate. A few principles, however, can be laid down.

a. Transportation facilities. To avoid carriage by wagon and transfer after shipment, fruits for the commercial business are preferably grown near some through line of transportation. Two such lines are preferable to one, as competition will thus tend to lower shipping rates, and there will then be greater security in case of strikes or other temporary obstructions to commerce. As a rule, the larger the number of transportation companies within reach of the fruit plantation, the better.

b. Shipping quality. The more delicate and perishable the fruit produced, the more important is it that it should be grown near a large center of population. The strawberry cannot be shipped long distances and be delivered to the consumer at its highest quality, though winter apples may be shipped across the ocean without deterioration.

Locations may sometimes be found where special fruits may be grown outside of their normal climatic belt. Thus peaches are produced considerably farther north on the east side of Lake Michigan than is possible in the Eastern States, and oranges may be grown in the thermal belts of the Sierra Nevada mountains as far north as Philadelphia. Fruits that can be well grown outside of their normal belt are usually more profitable than those grown in it, because local competition is thus restricted.

A market may sometimes be developed where it does not

'already exist. Since fruits do not usually rank among the

necessaries of life, their consumption depends largely upon

their cheapness and quality. In order to develop a market

for fruit we must supply the products of fine quality and in an attractive form. As their value becomes known, the demand for them will increase.

The most profitable markets for fruits are n9t always the largest towns and cities, since these, drawing their supply from extensive areas, are generally better stocked than smaller communities.

3d. Other conditions. Aside from soil, climate and market, other conditions should be considered in locating the fruit plantation:

a. The ability to procure the desired manual labor at a reasonable cost. This need not necessarily be skilled labor, as few of the operations of fruit culture are difficult to learn. More or less of transient labor will be needed, much of which may in some cases be performed by women and children. A location near a thickly-settled community is almost a necessity for small-fruit growing, in which much extra labor is needed during the harvest season.

b. An available supply of manure or fertilizers at prices that the market value of the crops will warrant. Homemade manure is cheapest, but cannot often be provided in sufficient quantity. Manure can usually be most cheaply purchased in the neighborhood of a town or city, but is sometimes available elsewhere, as from railways, slaughterhouses, glue factories, etc. Commercial fertilizers may be ordered directly, or through agents, to be delivered at the nearest freight depot.

c. Proximity to fruit establishments. A location near a canning factory, fruit evaporator, or a jelly, jam, cider or vinegar factory is desirable as offering a means for disposing of the lower grades of fruit.

d. Proximity to package manufactories. A location near a factory that turns out the kinds of packages most used on the fruit plantation, is an incidental advantage.

7. The selection of varieties. Success in commercial fruit growing depends much upon the selection of the proper varieties for growing. These must be so well adapted to their environment that they will be regularly productive, and their fruit must be of a character that commands a good price. Most varieties can be grown to perfection only in certain districts, and it is usually difficult to ascertain what varieties will do best in a given locality. Much may be learned from reading, from observation and from the experience of fruit growers and fruit dealers, but the grower will still find it necessary to experiment largely for himself. A " trial ground " is an essential part of the commercial fruit plantation.

The successful market varieties of the different fruits vary in different localities and at different periods. It is, therefore, impracticable to recommend a list of varieties in a vrork of this kind.

8. Commercial and domestic varieties. Varieties may be divided into two classes with reference to the trade for which they are grown. Those intended for sale in the open market, especially if they must be shipped, require different properties from those intended for delivery direct to the consumer. The former may be called commercial varieties^ the latter domestic varieties.

Commercial varieties demand attractive appearance, large size and good carriage and keeping qualities. High edible quality is generally considered of secondary importance. It should be remembered, however, that fruit is purchased by the consumer primarily for its pleasing and refreshing edible qualities, and that the more pleasing and refreshing a given sample is found to be, the more of it will be purchased as a rule. High edible quality should be regarded as one of tLj essentials of a market variety.

Domestic varieties demand special adaptation to some particular purpose, as for dessert, for canning, for jam or for jelly, rather than attractiveness or keeping quality. Domestic varieties require the higher skill in their production and marketing, and they often yield the larger and surer profits. They cannot, however, alvs^ays be sold in as large quantities as commercial varieties.

9. Procuring: stock for planting:. Some pomologists are of the opinion that the selection of cions and buds for propagation from productive individual plants is essential to the best success in fruit culture. While this proposition may not have been demonstrated, it is probably true and prudence would dictate its careful observance. This, however, will necessitate that the fruit grower become a nurseryman. At any rate the stock needed for the fruit plantation can generally be purchased cheaper and much quicker from a professional nurseryman, than it can be grown in the quantities commonly needed for planting. In buying stock, the locality, the seller and the time of year are points to be considered.

The locality where stock should he purchased. The nearer by the stock can be found, the more cheaply can it be delivered, and the shorter is the time needed for transportation. Stock grown under conditions most similar to those under which it is to be planted is generally preferable, but probably more depends upon the condition of the stock when planted than upon its nativity. The best way is for the purchaser to go to the nursery, select and dig the stock, and have it delivered at his grounds without boxing or baling.

The parties from whom stock should he purchased. Stock must generally be purchased from one or more nurserymen

General C onsidei^ations. 9

or nursery middlemen. Since it is often impossible to distinguish varieties of young stock with certainty, the purchaser must depend much on the integrity and care of the seller. As nurserymen are commonly more thoroughly established, and have more capital invested than middlemen, they are generally more anxious to maintain a good business reputation. The more times the stock changes hands the greater is the liabilit}'' to mistakes. For these reasons it is usually safer to deal directly with the growers of the stock, and when considerable quantities of stock are to be purchased, the middleman's commission can often be saved by so doing. Traveling nursery agents are usually least reliable of those who handle nursery stock, and their prices are apt to be highest.

The time to ])urchase stock will depend upon the time the planting is contemplated, and this will naturally vary with the kind of fruit and the climate. It is generally best, however, to order early, while the nurseryman's assortment is complete, and before his hurrying season arrives. Specific orders should be given as to the time the stock is desired for planting in order that the nurseryman may know when to ship it. In climates of severe winters it is often wise to have trees delivered in autumn for spring planting, and to bury them in a well drained place until spring.

10. Wind-breaks, A wind-break is a planting, usually •of trees or tall shrubs, intended to break the force of winds. It generally consists of one or more rows of rather closelyplanted trees, and is usually located to serve as a shelter from the prevailing winds only. Wind-breaks are helpful to the fruit plantation, as a rule, unless it is already protected from severe winds by natural barriers. They tend to reduce evaporation, to retain snow and leaves on the ground in winter, and they facilitate work in the plantation in windy weather. In orchards they lessen wind-falls^ the breaking and bending of trees and damage to blossoms.

A wind-break may prove injurious by intercepting winds that are tempered by a near body of water, thus increasing the cold, and sometimes by promoting frost to the leeward by obstructing air current^. These effects may be largely avoided by planting the wind-break thinly for such exposures, thus permitting some movement of the air between the trees. A wind-break may sometimes favor injurious insects and fungi, and may cause a dearth of soil water in the near vicinity, but these effects may be largely obviated by the use of parasite preventives, as spraying, by good cultivation, and in the case of orchards, by planting the' wind-break at the same time as the trees, and at a liberal distance from them.

As a rule, a closely planted wind-break, as of the denser evergreens, is preferable for plantations not perceptibly influenced by a body of water, and with good cold-air drainage. Deciduous trees or thinly-planted evergreens are often preferable near a body of water or where the cold-air drainage is interrupted.

The Norway spruce is most extensively planted as a wind-break in northern United States. Nut trees have been suggested as a wind-break for fruit plantations, but they would generally grow too slowly and too open at the bottom, while the close planting necessary for the purposes of a wind-break would be unfavorable to the production of nuts.

11. Designation of varieties. The names of varieties planted for fruiting should be preserved. The varieties should be designated in the field by appropriate stakes or labels, but as these are subject to many accidents and are rarely durable, an additional record should be kept. A map of the plantation, on which every variety is located and named, is very convenient for reference, but where it is desired to preserve notes of the different varieties, a book or card catalogue is also desirable. If a book is used, a page may be devoted to each variety, or to each individual tree or plant if desired, and the names of the varieties may be indexed for reference. The card catalogue is perhaps best, especially for large plantations. In this method, the name or number of each variety, tree or plant of which it is desired to preserve notes, is written near the top of a card, and the cards are arranged in a box or drawer in the same order in which the names occur in the plantation. The cards indicating the varieties in one row may be inclosed in a rubber band. The different fruits may be separated by wider cards or by pieces of thin board. The cards should be large enough for recording all needed data. If a tree or a variety is removed from the plantation, the card corresponding to it is taken out of the box; or if one is transplanted, its card is removed in like manner. Thus the list is not cumbered with varieties no longer grown, and shows every variety in the plantation in its proper place. Where many varieties are grown a supplementary card catalogue, in which each card contains the name of one variety and designates its location, and in which the names are arranged in strict alphabetical order, is also needed for locating varieties of which the place has been forgotten.

12. Harmful parasites and diseases. The fruit grower must be watchful for these during the growing season, or much harm may result before the cause is discovered. The insects and diseases that affect the different fruit plants will be treated separately for each class, but largely the same apparatus and materials will be needed for all. A good spraying pump with an attachment that secures a uniform mixture of the materials, and that is capable of spraying kerosene and water together, with a nozzle that gives an adjustable spray, with ready unclogging facilities, will be almost indispensable, as will conveniences for preparing the Bordeaux mixture.* The capacity of the spraying apparatus needed will depend much upon the size of the plantation. For large plantations, a pump operated by horse power will be very useful, while one operated by steam may be needed for those of the largest size.

13. The conditions affecting: fruitfulness are but partially understood. In a climate favorable to a given fruit, fruitfulness probably depends more upon variety than upon outside conditions. Of the latter, those that promote a healthful condition of the plant and moderate growth doubtless tend to normal fruitfulness. Vigorous growth is generally opposed to fruitfulness, and so are severe drought and insufficient potash and phosphoric acid in the soil. An excessive crop of fruit is apt to be followed by a partial or complete failure of crop. The flower buds of our fruit plants are formed the season previous to their expansion, and the weather during or just preceding the flowerforming period most likely exerts a potent influence upon the number of flowers formed. The weather during the expansion of the flowers and the setting of the fruit is probably, also potent. But excepting the effects of frost at blooming time, these influences are, as yet, little nnder-

* For a discussion of various insecticides and fungicides, and directions for preparing the Bordeaux mixture, see "Principles of Plant Culture."

stood. In fruits of which the flower buds are more subject to harm from cold than the leaf buds, as in the stone fruits, the flower buds are often destroyed in winter.

14. The self-Sterility of varieties. Recent investigations have shown that many, perhaps most, varieties of fruit are infertile to their own pollen: i. e., their flowers will not set fruit unless their stigmas receive pollen from some other variety. For example, the Bartlett pear fruits well only when its stigmas receive pollen from some other kind of pear than Bartlett. . The limits of self-sterility have not been determined, but until they are determined it is wise to mingle varieties freely in the fruit plantation, rather than to plant large blocks of a single variety. As a rule, more than two rows of a given variety should not be planted together. Care should also be taken to plant varieties together, so far as practicable, that bloom at the same time.

15. Fruit packages should be provided early to avoid delays in harvesting. They may often be advantageously secured during the winter, so that they can be nailed up and branded when time is less valuable than duidng the growing season. They should be stored in a dry place where the sun cannot shine upon them, and away from rats and mice. Damp package-material to be kept some time before putting in shape should be piled loosely to prevent mildew. As the package is influential in selling the fruit, neatness in its appearance is important. Secondhand packages should only be used for inferior fruit. The different kinds of packages are considered in connection with the fruits for which they are used.

The requisites to a good package are (a) sufficient strength, (b) neatness, (c) cheapness and (d) lightness. "Gift" packages, i. e., those that are furnished free with the fruit are usually most satisfactory. A returnable package must be made comparatively heavy and costly to provide sufficient strength; it soon becomes soiled from use, and often causes trouble by not being promptly returned.

The grower's name and address should be put upon every package of good fruit, and an attractive trade-mark will aid in securing a reputation.

16. When and how should fruit be picked? With a few •exceptions, of which the pear is one (77), fruit reaches its highest edible quality when left attached to the plant until fully ripe. The stage of ripeness at which it should be picked, however, depends upon the market. Fruit supplied direct to the consumer should be picked and delivered when in best condition for the use intended. If for dessert, it should be picked fully ripe; if for canning it may need to be picked a little hard. The purchaser should generally be consulted on these points.

Fruit that must be shipped to market should be picked sufficiently hard, and be so packed as to endure the journey without damage from bruising. Allowance should be made for the time required in, and the manner of transit, for the season, the weather and the variety. Fruit that is to be but one hour in transit may be picked riper than that which will be five to ten hours on the journey; that which is to be carried by water may usually be picked somewhat riper than that which is to go by rail for a similar time. Tender-fleshed varieties should be picked less mature than firm-fleshed ones.

Abrasions of the skin and bruises, however small, detract from the market value and keeping quality of fruits, and hence should be carefully avoided. The bloom of fruits possessing bloom should be preserved intact. Fruit should only be picked while the skia is dry, as a rule, and should never be permitted to become wet after picking, for moisture on the skin promotes decay. Nor should picked fruit be exposed to the sun's rays in warm weather. The more tender the fruit, the more important is it to observe these precautions. As a rule, the sooner fruit can be removed to the packing or storing house after picking, the better.

IT. Grading and packing:. First impressions are potent in forming judgment, hence fruit exposed for sale should be put up to present the finest appearance consistent with honest packing. Uniformity of size and quality in the package promotes a favorable impression, hence fruits should be graded, so far as practicable, and different grades should be separately packed. An intelligent buyer seldom offers much more for an ungraded package of fruit than he regards the poorer samples worth, hence the better specimens sell for less than their value. If the quality is uniform throughout the package, an artistic arrangement of the specimens on the exposed part is legitimate and commendable.

18. Packinghouses. Where large quantities of fruits are grown, a building will be needed for packing and temporary storage. The character of this building will depend somewhat upon the time the fruit is expected to remain in it. If the building is to serve the purpose of a winter storehouse for long-keeping fruits, it should be provided with a cellar that can be kept from freezing in severe weather. It is also desirable to have a compartment connected with the packing house for the storage of package material, but this is generally a second-story room. The size of the building will of course depend much upon the amount of fruit produced. It should be arranged with reference to convenience in loading and unloading fruit from a wagon, and if intended for the tree fruits, it should have well-lighted assorting tables at convenient points.

As it is important that the temperature of the packing . house be kept cool as possible, a location that is shaded by trees is preferable, and the house should generally be ceiled, plastered or papered inside, in such manner as to provide an air space in the wall. Care should also be taken to keep the building free from rats and mice.

If the house is built in a depression where cool air settles at night, it may be kept considerably cooler than if located on higher ground, but it should be remembered that the location that is coolest in summer will also be coldest in winter.

19. Storage of fruit. Cold-storage houses are so costly that only extensive fruit growers can afford to provide them. If the grower desires to keep his produce much beyond its normal ripening period, he will generally do better to place it in a commercial cold-storage house, j^aying the required rate for the privilege.

The storage house is most economically kept from freezing in severe winter weather by sinking the floor more or less below the surface of the ground. It is generally preferable to do this even in climates of mild winters, because this aids in keeping the storage room cool. The depth to which the floor is sunk below the surface should depend upon the severity of the winter climate. It is neither desirable nor economical to depend on artificial heat to keep out frost. The portion of the wall built above ground, whether of wood or other material, should be provided with at least one dead-air space, and if wood is used, a layer of building paper outside and inside of the wall will tend to keep out lieat and cold. The roof of the storage room should also have afc least one dead-air space. If the storage room is placed beneath the packing room, this is readily accomplished by ceiling or plastering directly on the floor joists; but if the roof of the storage room is also the roof of the building, the roof boards should be laid close, and a layer of lath and plaster may be added just beneath them and ceiling or lath and plaster may also be added to the lower edge of the rafters.