Railway track and track work

Front matter

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Preface To The Second Edition

In view of the importance of the railway track which carries the enormous railway traffic of the United States, and in view of the amount of engineering and technical work involved in the construction and maintenance of the track and its appurtenances, it may appear somewhat strange that the technical literature, on the subject should be so limited as compared with that on other branches of railway engineering. This may be attributed largely to the fact that until within quite recent years, this department of railway service was considered to belong to the grade, of skilled labor rather than to men of scientific and technical training. The book on "Track," written by Mr. Wm. B. Parsons in 1886, was practically the first book dealing with the subject from the engineering point of view, and written for the use of the engineer rather than that of the section foreman or "practical" roadmaster. For this reason, although its scope was somewhat limited, the book had a very extensive sale among engineers, but it has long been out of print. The steady and increasing demand from engineers for a technical book on track and maintenance of way led to the publication of the first edition of "Railway Track and Track Work" in 1897. The author had had this in preparation for some years previously, with the design of making a comprehensive book specially adapted for engineers, who are now entering more largely than ever before into the work and responsibilities of the maintenance of way department. It was published in the autumn of 1897. Within a few months the greater part of the edition was sold, and it was practically exhausted by the summer of 1900.

The continued demand for this book, not only from engineers but from the engineering schools, many of which have, adopted it as a text book, has now been met by the preparation of this second edition, which has been entirely set up in new type and almost entirely rewritten. Since 1897, many changes and improvements have been made in materials and methods, while ii

new standards have been adopted with the general progress made in this department, and these various improvements are represented in the revision. Not only has the book been thoroughly revised, but many new illustrations have been made, and additional chapters have been added dealing with signals and interlocking and street railway track. As to the latter, it may be noted that street and country electric railways now offer such a wide and new field for engineers, that it was felt the book would not be complete, without some mention of this branch of the subject. The tables of standard track construction in the appendix are also entirely new, having been prepared during the present year.

A special feature of the book is that it includes not only the general principles underlying track work, and the systems of practice which are everywhere applicable, but also includes numerous individual details of material, ways and in different sections of the country. It is believed that mere general statements as to methods of work and construction leave very much to be desired both by the beginner or student and by the engineer in charge of maintenance of way work. It has been the author's special aim therefore to present drawings and details of materials and methods, representing varied and actual practice, and to show their good and bad features, as well as the reasons for their use. This particular characteristic of the style of treatment adopted has met with very considerable commendation, showing that it meets a definite need. The scope of the book is large, as may be seen by a glance at the table of contents, and the various subjects included are treated not merely in a descriptive but also in a critical manner.

It would be impracticable to mention each and every engineer, railway officer and manufacturer of railway material who has furnished information to be made use of in this book, but the author takes the present opportunity to extend thanks for all information furnished, and for all the criticisms, corrections and commendations which have been sent to him.

Chicago, October, 1900.

PART II.— TRACK WORK. Chapter 16.— Organization of Hainte nance = off -Way Department 261

Systems of Organization, Engineers as Roadmasters, Duties of Roadmasters, Section Foremen, Trackwalkers and Watchmen, Force and Labor, Work Train Conductors, Bridge and Building Department, Signal Department.

Chapter 1 7.— Tracklaying and Ballasting .... 285

Ordinary Tracklaying, Machine Tracklaying, Distribution of Ballast, Ballast Cars.

Chapter 18.— Drainage and Ditching .... 308

Drainage of Wet Ground and Slopes, Protection of Slopes, Ditching and Ditching Machines, Subdrainage.

Chapter 19.— Track Work for Maintenance . . . 3<7

General Work on the Section, Work for Different Seasons, Lining, Gaging, Surfacing, Renewing Ties, Tamping, Raising Track, Moving Track, Handling Rails, Relaying Rails, Shifting Rails on Curves, Bending and Cutting Rails, Spiking, Bolting, Shimming, Fencing, Clearing Right of Way, Cutting Weeds, Policing, Station Grounds and Buildings, Old Material.

Chapter 20.— Gage, Grades and Curves . . . . 351

Change of Gage, Compensation of Grades, Virtual Grades, Vertical Curves, Sharp Curves, Transition Curves, Widening Gage on Curves, Superelevation on Curves.

Ghapter 21. — Track Inspection and the Premium System . 374

Chapter 22.— Switch Work and Turnouts . . . 384

Chapter 23. — Bridge Work and Telegraph Work . . 400

Chapter 24.— Permanent Improvements and Work Trains . 409

Changes in Alinement and Grade, Filling Trestles, Construction and Work Trains.

Chapter 25. —Handling and Clearing S«ow . . . 419

Chapter 26.— Wrecking Trains and Operations . . . 429

Chapter 27.— Records, Reports and Accounts. . . . 445

Information Charts, Blank Forms for Reports, Accounts and Statistics.

Table of Standard Track Construction on 50 Railways.

Table of Train Speeds and Distances Run.

RAILWAY TRACK AND TRACK WORK.

PART L— TRACK.

CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTION.

The railway system of the United States now aggregates about 190,000 miles of railway, with 252,000 miles of track, the traffic over which amounts to about 862,000,000 train miles per year, while nearly 1% of the total population is directly employed in the railway service. The maintenance of 200,000 miles of main track, to keep it in proper condition to safely and efficiently carry the traffic, is a stupendous and never ending work, and one which affords great opportunities for the exercise of skill, judgment and executive ability in combining efficiency and economy in the conduct of the work.

The track upon which all the traffic has to be carried is one of the most important essentials of a railway. The importance of the track and track work in their relation to the operation of the railway, and the proportion of the total operating expenses which is represented by the expenditures on track maintenance, are not as generally recognized as they should be, even by railway officers. The idea held by many men not personally familiar with; the service is that the track consists merely of two lines of rails laid upon timber ties, while the track work consists merely in attending to the spiking and bolting of rails and the occasional tamping of the ballast under the ties. A glance at the table of contents of this book will give a better idea of the variety of items included in track equipment, and of the variety of work required to be done in keeping the track in proper condition for the traffic. In addition to this, however, account must be taken of the care and forethought involved in devising the most economical construction, and the best and most economical methods of conducting the work under the various conditions of construction and operation which exist on different railways. In too many cases, also, it is taken for granted that any common laborer can be properly employed on track work, although it is almost universally recognized that a considerable amount of skilled labor is required to keep the motive power and rolling stock equipment in condition for safe and economical service. The opportunity is therefore taken in this introduction to call attention to the importance and responsibility of the engineer, the roadmaster, the section foreman and the section men, and to the relation which their work bears to the safe, efficient and economical operation of the railway.

There is an increasing recognition of the fact that the management of the track work and track forces should be in the hands of men of engineering training, and not in the hands of men who were simply somewhat above the grade of the ordinary section foreman. Many of the old roadmasters were (and are) of this latter type, and it is no discredit to them to say that they were rarely competent to understand the principles upon which track work is based or to deal with the higher problems in such work under modern conditions where speed of trains, a high grade of track construction, and a close economy in maintenance are involved. The Chief Engineer and his direct assistants have many other responsibilities besides those of the track, and very often these officials have no practical knowledge of track work, but have to rely to a large extent upon the roadmaster. The modern roadmaster, therefore, should combine engineering skill and knowledge with practical experience in the details of track work. This question is further discussed in the chapter on "Organization." There is still a strong tendency on the part of the financial and executive officers to ignore recommendations from and to reduce or disallow requisitions from the track department, owing in part, no doubt, to the old system of organization, under which it was generally understood that a roadmaster was not competent to consider matters involving the general management of the road. That this is the case appears to be proved by the fact that even on roads which are spending large sums for general improvements in realinement and reduction of curves, there is often a certain hesitation in regard to matters of track improvement. The engineers can show and the transportation officers can realize the direct economy in operation resulting from such expenditures for general improvement, but the questions of the relative advantages of heavier rails, better joints, treated ties, better ballast and improved appliances, are less liable to be fully presented or understood. One result of putting the maintenance of way into the hands of engineers, even as subordinates, will be that greater weight will be given to the opinions and recommendations of these men, whose qualifications will be understood by their immediate superiors and the higher officers.

One difficulty which the engineer and roadmaster and the superintendent and other technical officers have to meet is the very general confusion of the meaning of the terms "cheapness" and "economy" by non-technical officers. This applies more particularly in matters of detail. The officers may realize that large expenditures on improvements will result in economies in operating expenses, but are possessed by the idea that in buying supplies at a lower price than estimated or recommended, or in cutting down requisitions, they are practicing a commendable economy, whereas it is very probable that they are wasting money on inferior articles and hastening the time when larger expenditures will be required. It may be difficult, for instance, to convince them that very cheap supplies may be of such inferior quality as to ultimately involve more expense than supplies of better quality and higher price; or that, if a carefully prepared requisition of ties is cut in half, the distribution of the number where renewals are necessary may leave the track in little better condition than before. The technical officers, however, should have the courage of their convictions, based upon their personal knowledge, and should be prepared to press their arguments home in an endeavor to have the requirements of the case realized.

In regard to requisitions, the responsible officer should not let one pass to his superiors without being convinced that it is reasonable and fair,

INTRODUCTION. 3

and that he can sustain it if it is called in question.. He should at the same time be familiar with the financial conditions of the company, and regulate his requisitions accordingly, so that they may not be radically cut down by the executive officers, when he might have distributed the cut more judiciously and to better advantage. The aim of the officer in charge of track maintenance should be to do the best work possible with the amounts appropriated for his use. If the company is prosperous, he may turn his attention to important works or measures for the general improvement of the line, by which large expenditures will result in material economy in the future. If the company happens to be in straightened circumstances, it should be. his particular aim to get the best possible results with the least possible expenditure, and to keep the track in the best possible condition. Many railways, owing to financial conditions, have to get on in the track and other departments with very limited means, and the officers of the departments have of necessity to carry out their work in a "hand-to-mouth" way that is by' no means conducive to good or economical work. Under such conditions there is opportunity for the exercise of skill and judgment in distributing work and money to the best advantage, for such conditions are rarely an excuse for a thoroughly bad and neglected track.

On the other hand, some railways in better circumstances apparently consider that, with the road once built, expenditures for the track should be permanently low. Therefore, while appropriating large sums for new locomotives and cars, handsome passenger trains, new stations, etc., and for freight and passenger competition expenses (which item might well be restricted), they are not willing to authorize liberal expenditures in track and roadway equipment. Many important roads, of course, are managed on a better system than this, but under the above conditions of service the officials of roads which cannot afford (or can but will not afford) needed improvements, have to do the best they can with such material and money as are available. In times of financial stringency, the above noted tendency to cut down expenses with a free hand is particularly evident. The too frequent result is a deterioration in the physical condition of the property, which (besides the loss of reputation to the railway) will very generally render extra expenses necessary to bring the road back to reasonably proper condition. It should be recognized as an established fact that the poorer the track the greater will be the expenses for maintenance and renewals, owing to the inability of the track to sustain the weights and shocks to which it is subjected. The importance of the maintenance department is perhaps most thoroughly understood by the officers of that department on a road where light track, fact trains, heavy traffic, rejected requisitions and frequent admonitions to keep the expenses down, together with a constant sense of responsibility in case of accident, make their positions anything but easy. Men in such positions are often largely instrumental in the successful operation of the road, but their work and responsibility are usually but little known outside of their own offices.

A somewhat potent aid in a movement to improve the track is the introduction of higher speeds, since such conditions of traffic cause increased cutting of the ties, shifting of the ballast, and general disturbance of the line and surface of the track. The maintenance expenses are thus increased to a marked extent by a material increase of speed over a somewhat light track, and the traveling public will become aware of the fact that such a road is not a comfortable one to travel upon. Where a substantial track construction is introduced and maintained, the subsequent cost of maintenance is likely to decrease in spite of the higher speeds, the track being better able to resist the strains to which it is subjected. Under such conditions, the road would gain a reputation for comfortable service as well as high speed.

From what has been said, it will be readily believed that there is still in very many cases a lack of proper relation of the track to the traffic which it carries, and a deficiency in the maintenance. Train loads, wheel loads, speed and number of trains have steadily increased, while the track has not been improved in proportion to the extra strain and wear to which it is subjected, and the maintenance forces remain practically unchanged. On the other hand, there are many main lines having an excellent and substantial track construction, well maintained, and second to none in this or any other country, but these lines represent only a part of the total mileage of track carrying heavy traffic. Within the past few years there have been marked advances in track construction, notably in the use of heavier rails and of metal tie-plates, and in the introduction of improvements in frogs and switches. These tend towards a smaller expense for maintenance work and a greater degree of safety in the movement of trains. With all due credit and allowance for the progress that has been made, particularly within the past few years, it is certain that much remains to be done to bring the track into proper relation with the traffic conditions. Practical experience has conclusively shown the importance of substantial and smooth track in securing the maximum effective work of the motive power equipment, while at the same time such track will require less labor and expense for its maintenance. In view of the present tendency to the introduction of heavier engines, cars and trains, it may well be pointed out that resultant economy in transportation expenses may be offset by deterioration in track, with increase in expenses for maintenance of way, and increased liability to accident.

The conditions vary, however, according to the nature of the road and the traffic. Thus, a light track which would be safe and economical on straight and level lines where the trains run easily, might be dangerous and expensive on a line with steep grades and sharp curves, over which the engines work heavily. So, also, a well-laid and well maintained track of comparatively light construction may give better service than a relatively heavier track less perfectly maintained and having low joints, worn ties and loose ballast. A low standard of maintenance may be expected where heavy traffic is imposed upon a light track with worn rails and ties, thin and inferior ballast and a general evidence of financial neglect. Yet such conditions are to be met with even on important lines. This is due largely to financial conditions (the various good and bad reasons for which have already been briefly considered), and to the fact that the other departments have in general received more attention than the roadway department. The attention of managers and higher officers should be called to the necessity for and the advantages of improved standards of track construction and maintenance. This subject was discussed in a paper on "The Relation of Track to Traffic on

INTRODUCTION. 5

American and Foreign Railways," read by the author before the New York Railway Club in 1896, in which paper details were given of actual conditions then existing.

An objection to American practice which has often been put forward by European engineers and railway men, is the comparatively light weight of rail used, but it must be remembered that the rail is only one part of the construction, and that it is not (as is often assumed) a girder resting on fixed supports. The whole track deflects under loads by the compression of the ballast and roadbed, independent of the deflection of the rails between the ties. Consequently, a 65-lb. or 70-lb. rail supported by 16 to 18 ties, may form a track smoother and more substantial than one with a 75-lb. or 80-lb. rail on 12 to 15 ties in the same length. It follows, also, that American track with 80 to 100-lb. rails, supported by 17 or 18 ties, will be more smooth and substantial than English track with rails of the same weight supported by only 10 or 12 ties. This is a point not unfrequentiy overlooked, and, in fact, some engineers have reasoned that by introducing heavier rails the number of ties can be reduced. This is by no means a safe proposition.

The proportion which the charges for maintenance of way and structures bear to the total operating expenses of American railways is usually high, as shown in Table No. 1, given below, and this is largely due to the fact that a majority of the roads have been built in the first place with regard to immediate cheapness and rapidity of construction rather than to ultimate economy in operation. The conditions under which the railways have been built (often in advance of the prospective traffic) have, on the whole, fully warranted the carrying out of the work on this principle. In too many cases, however, the mistake has been made of allowing the original style of construction to remain unaltered and unimproved long after it has been outgrown by the traffic. The result of this is that such roads have to sustain a heavy continual charge for maintenance. These conditions and their relation to operating conditions are now being given much greater consideration, and within the past few years many roads have spent enormous sums of money in general improvements, such as reducing grades and curves, improving the location, double tracking, improving yard and terminal arrangements, and replacing trestles and light structures with solid embankments and more permanent and substantial structures. In 1896, and again in 1900, the author made an extended investigation as to existing standards in track construction, and the results were published in "Engineering News," New York, June 25, 1896, and Aug. 30, 1900. Tables of these standards are given as an appendix to this book, and it must be understood that they represent the standard for main track only, regardless of lighter and less approved details of construction still in use, particularly on branches or lines of secondary importance. The construction shown by the tables, therefore, represents but a portion of the main track mileage of the several railways, though this portion is gradually increasing as renewals are carried on to meet the requirements of traffic.

As shown by the brief summary of statistics at the end of this chapter, the traffic on all the railways of the United States for the year ending

TRACK.

June 30, 1899, aggregated 862,258,714 train miles, and the operating expenses amounted to 65.24% of the gross earnings from operation. The largest item in the expenditures for operation is that of "conducting transportation," which includes all train and station service, and this item was 56.73% of the total, while the expenses for maintenance of way and structures amounted to 21.05%, and those of maintenance of equipment amounted to 17.62% of the total expenditures for operation. The expenditures for general improvements are not included in these figures. Analyzing the details of these figures, it is found that repairs to roadway represent about 10% of the entire operating expenses, while rail renewals and tie renewals represent 1.33% and 3%, respectively. A consideration of the fact that the maintenance work on track and structures absorbs over 21% of the operating expenses, and of the further fact that half of this is for ordinary roadway repairs (exclusive of rail and tie renewals), will show the relation which the maintenance department bears to the financial affairs of the railway company. Bearing this in mind, it becomes evident that greater importance should be attached to the proper organization and conduct of this department.

Tlfis general summary of the affairs of the railway system as a whole serves merely to indicate the average distribution of expenses, but it is of little use for application to individual cases. The advocates of reform in railway track construction, in the way of a more permanent character of work, have frequently called attention to the fact that, under the present system, the maintenance charges are extremely high. From official statements and annual reports Table No. 1 has been prepared, showing for sev-

TABLE NO. 1.— RAILWAY MAINTENANCE OF WAY EXPENSES.

Ratio of r-Maintenance operating Fer Railways. exp. to grs. train- No. earnings, Per mile, miles. per ct. mile. cts.

English Railways.

* Pennsylvania and New Jersey Divisions only.

of way of way.—,.

, and structures. —

Per cent.

Per

Per ct.

of trainof op. exp.,

Per mile, op. exp, per ct.

mile.

cts.

perct.

17.4

$861

21.8

21.6

11.5

2,056

17.7

17.7

14.4

2,427

25.5

19.4

12.0

1,963

15.8

16.0

8.8

1,358

13.1

12.2

11.2

1,632

18.3

16.5

13.0

1,190

19.4

3,264

18.0

6.50

1,961

19.0

19.0

14.0

15.0

17.0

14.15

18.0

20.0

16.5

21.13

15.0

20.07

21.3

18.2

22.3

25.4

13.2

1,164

19.0

23.5

26.0

32.0

15.6

15.6

16.0

28.0

24.0

19.3

1,079

28.0

21.7

34.2

34.2

28.6

14.7

IS. 5

21.0

9.6

9.0

13.6

12.0

1,355

15.4

22.4

6.0

2,350

14.0

18.8

7.0

1,510

11.8

15.0

9.0

1,660

9.4

15.0

INTRODUCTION. 7

eral railways the relation of the maintenance of way expenses to the mileage, train mileage and operating expenses. In many statistics of this kind the figures are simply given for "maintenance of way and structures," but the expenditures on structures vary within very wide limits, according to the character and number of structures, and these combined expenses cannot be reduced to any common or uniform basis for comparison. Under such conditions, the combined expenditure gives but little idea as to the comparative expenses for maintenance of way on different roads. For this table, therefore, the author has taken the expenditures for maintenance of way proper (including general work on roadway, rail and tie renewals, and ballasting) and shown their relation to the operating expenses and train mileage. In a few cases this cannot be done, the railways stating that they are unable to separate the expenditures on maintenance of way proper. Most of the figures are for the fiscal year ending in 1899, but some are for the year 1898. Most of them also include taxes in the operating expenses.

From the columns showing the cost of maintenance of way it will be seen that the expenses range from $546 to $1,463 per mile of road; from 6.76 to 24.4 cts. per revenue train mile, and from 6.50% to 21.7% of the operating expenses. The columns giving the cost of maintenance of way and structures show that these expenses range from $490 to $3,264 per mile of road, and from 15.6% to 32% of the operating expenses.

At the end of the table are given similar figures for five leading English railways, and these make an interesting comparison with the figures for American railways. The maintenance of way expenses of the former approximate to a low average of those of the latter when taken per mile of road, but are materially lower per train mile and form a considerably smaller percentage of the operating expenses. From this it will be seen that the English railways, with their almost universally substantial track construction, are operated more economically in regard to this branch of the expenditures. If, however, the varying character of track on the American roads could be classified, it would probably be seen that the maintenance of way expenses on first-class American track are about as low as, if not even lower than, those of the English roads. When we come to "maintenance of way and structures," the expenses per mile and the percentage of these expenses to the total operating expenses come closer to the results obtained on American roads, although the expenses . per train mile are much lower. As to the percentage of operating expenses to gross earnings, there is not such a marked difference as is usually supposed. In fact, English railway men would probably be somewhat surprised to find that the percentage on representative American railways averages but little higher than that on English railways, instead of representing a great proportion of the earnings.

Throughout this book there are given numerous rules and instructions as to methods of work, but it must be distinctly understood that rules cannot be made universally applicable and should not therefore be followed blindly. Owing to varying conditions of track, traffic, topography, labor, etc., a method which may* be the best practice in one case may be entirely unsuitable in another. Therefore every man must exercise his own judgment. He should not adopt a method simply because he finds it has been used; nor should he assume that a method is wrong simply because it could not be applied to advantage on his own road or division. Engineers and roadmasters should comprehend the principles underlying their work, should be familiar with the general rules of practice outside their own particular sphere, and should take into consideration the actual conditions under which their work is to be done. Upon this basis they should devise or adopt such methods or materials as will give the best and most economical results under these governing conditions. It will be seen, therefore, that there is ample scope for a man to exert his skill and his executive ability in the conduct of the maintenance of way department.

In concluding this introductory chapter, the author gives the following summarized statistics for the railways of the United States, compiled from the report of the Interstate Commerce Commission for the year ending June 30, 1899:

AMERICAN RAILWAY STATISTICS. 1899.

Mileage.

Single track 189,295 miles.

Second track 11,547

Third track 1,047 "

Fourth track 790 **

Yard tracks and sidings 49,686 "

Total mileage operated 252,365 miles.

Employees.

-Number-

Per 100 miles. Total.

General administration 18 34.170

Maintenance of way and structures 153 287.163

Maintenance of equipment 96 180,749

Conducting transportation 223 417 ,54J8

Unclassified 5 9,334

General officers, clerks, etc 21 38,497