A text-book of psychology for secondary schools

Front matter

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Preface

Several years ago the present writer prepared a small work upon elementary psychology, which was published just before the large number of elementary books on the subject made their appearance, and before the new psychology, so-called, had taken on any very definite form. That work had a special purpose in view, made no claim to originality in matter, and naturally followed, in its arrangement of material, the usual order of the so-called old psychology.

Since that time many changes have occurred in the department of mental science. New theories have been advanced, new modes of expression have been adopted, and new arrangements of matter have come into favor in many quarters. The progress of discussion and further study and investigation have modified, to some extent and in some directions, the opinions of the author. The present work is the result of these modifications and changes.

The fact is recognized that theories are still in an unsettled condition, and that other and further advances will be made, and consequently other modifications and changes will become necessary in the future.

Meanwhile it seems the part of wisdom to gather up, select, and adopt such new doctrines as appear to be

4 PREFACE

tolerably well established. The new is in most, if not all, cases a natural evolution from the old ; and there can be no real conflict between them. It is folly, or worse, to cast aside the old simply because it bears the marks of age; it is equally foolish and absurd either to adopt or to reject the new because it has an aspect of novelty and a certain appearance of strangeness. Truth should be welcomed and gladly accepted, from whatever source it may come.

It is believed that the chapters treating of the moral nature will give additional value to the work, since the most effective ethical instruction can be given only in connection with the general study of the laws of mind. The true basis for moral teaching and training must be found in the soul itself, and in the intuitive principles of right and righteousness.

The book is designed to meet the wants of students in normal schools, in high schools, and in other institutions of a secondary character, and also to be of service for private reading, especially to teachers in elementary and intermediate schools.

When properly taught, psychology has a very high practical value for parents, teachers, and for persons of all professions and employments concerned with human character and the forces and conditions which give direction to human conduct. This is especially true of the psychology of the feelings, of volition, and of the moral powers. The teaching should be made as practical as possible.

In the use of this work the teacher should remember that it professes to be only a text-book. And while it

PREFACE S

contains as much matter as can be thoroughly mastered by ordinary classes in the time usually allotted to the subject in the schools, yet supplementary instruction should be added, when time and circumstances permit, to topics selected according to the judgment and taste of the instructor.

The subjects of attention and interest have been treated in Chapter III., out of deference to the most common order of arrangement. They may, however, be studied with fully equal advantage after Chapter IV., or possibly even later.

Some suggestions in relation to apparatus and experiments for illustration have been reserved for an appendix. This has been done for two reasons. First, the value of experimentation, in the teaching of psychology in the ordinary school, has not yet been fully determined; and the comparative value of different forms of experiment is still largely a matter of individual opinion. The suggestions, being placed separately, can be readily changed, subtracted from, or added to, as experience shall prove to be desirable.

Secondly, some teachers will prefer to omit most of the experiments ; others will place higher value upon experiments of their own than upon those suggested. With the present arrangement omissions and selections can be made by teachers according to their own judgment and preferences, without causing confusion in their classes.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

II. The Nervous Systems 21

III. Attention and Interest 35

Chapter I

Psychology defined. — The simplest definition of psychology is that which defines it as the science of the mind or soul ; or the science of the phenomena of mind or of consciousness. A phenomenon, as the term is here used, denotes anything which appears either to the senses or in consciousness.

Professor Ladd, indorsed by Professor James, defines psychology as *^ the description and explanation of states of consciousness as such.'* States of consciousness are any and all forms of psychical activity, sensations, emotions, volitions, and so on through the whole list.

Psychology is divided into several kinds, more or less distinct from one another in their character and mode of treatment.

Physiological Psychology, as described and limited by Ziehen, "deals exclusively with those psychical phenomena to which concomitant physiological processes of the brain correspond.'* Material processes, according to this view, correspond to psychical processes or phenomena in such a way that one of these cannot exist without the other. The material processes have their origin in the brain, except such as are purely reflex. Of necessity, therefore, physiological psychology must, in its discussions and explanations, *^ ignore all psychical processes for which no corresponding physiological processes in the brain are conceivable/* Consequently physiological psychology by itself can deal with none of the higher intellectual activities, such as imagination, judgment, and reason, nor with any of the higher feelings, such as the feelings of beauty, sublimity, and reverence. Physiological psychology affords a natural introduction to the study of psychology as a complete science.

Empirical Psychology, as described by Lindner, '' has set itself the task of proceeding from the particular facts of consciousness, and, in accordance with the method of induction, of basing upon them an explanatory theory of soul life.'' It may be called the method of experience. Its sources of knowledge are '* the facts of inner experience,'* and these are learned by observation of self and of others and by experiments. Lindner says, '' Self-observation is the most important source of psychological investigations."

Another division of psychology is into the old and the new.

The Old Psychology is sometimes defined as '' rational or speculative psychology." One writer says, '' The old psychology is a s}!^stematic knowledge of the soul through introspection and observation. The student turns his attention, first of all, upon the phenomena of consciousness in his own mind. He assumes that this is the

THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY 9

primary and only way of acquiring original knowledge of mental phenomena. He studies manifestations of psychical action in others. He seeks thus to know the exact nature and the universality of the action' of the mind.*'

The New Psychology, according to Dr. Scripture, *' is entitled to its special adjective because it employs a method new in the history of psychology, although not new in the history of science. . . . The psychologist of the new dispensation must see every statement proven by experiment and measurement before he will commit himself in regard to it. Every alleged fact, every statement, must be brought as evidence before the Court of Reason.'* The new psychology is especially the method of studying and investigating the facts of consciousness, as far as this is possible, by experiment. It is a difference in method rather than in matter. It deals with the same phenomena, the same facts, as the old psychology, but deals with them in a different way, and from a different starting point. The two psychologies are, after all, only one.

President Hall, of Clark University, says, *' For me, the new psychology does not mean dropping any of the old. . . . The new psychology adds accuracy, a vast body of new facts, a better method of introspection, has got into fruitful, instead of negative, relations with science."

The real relations between the old and the new psychology are easy to comprehend. The new methods are the natural and necessary complements of the old. They have appeared by evolution and not by revolution. Everything in them which experience proves to be useful, will be accepted and adopted cheerfully by all students and teachers of psychology. The old psychology starts from the standpoint of self-observation ; that is, it begins with consciousness and its deliverances. The new methods supply consciousness with assorted material upon which to exercise its activity. Experiments are made at one time upon the sense of sight, at another upon the sense of hearing, and so on. These experiments affect the sensory nerves ; the nerves report to the great nerve center. So much and so far we have physiology alone ; this is physiological psychology. The products are sensations ; sensations have been excited, and the mind must do the rest. The experiment is in reality a question put to consciousness ; and no answer can be made until consciousness is aroused, and sends back an answer over the fibers of a motor nerve. There is in this no conflict between the old and the new psychology ; the new furnishes material and conditions by means of its laboratories and apparatus, and the old makes them effective through the reaction of the soul to the external stimulus. The first general definition, that '* psychology is the science of the mind," embraces all the psychologies just named. The following quotation from Professor Le Conte states the different methods of psychological investigation very clearly : '* We have in psychology at least three methods of research : namely, the method of experiment, the method of comparison or the evolution method, and the method of introspection. The relative domains of these have not yet been adjusted. The experimental method is, I believe, limited in its application to the lowest phenomena, that is, to those allied to physiology. Introspec-

THE MIND OR SOUL II

tion, on the other hand, is limited to the higher phenomena, that is, to the distinctively human. The method of comparison, or the evolution method, is probably without limit in its application.'*

The Mind or Soul. — Mind may be defined as the Ego, the I myself ; that which knows, feels, and wills. We assu7ne, at the outset, that there is a soul, that it is immaterial, that, though intimately associated with matter, it is distinct front matter. Such assumption appears reasonable. We cannot escape the conviction that where action is manifested, there must be something to act ; where movement is discovered there must be something to move, and some force to cause the movement. It seems equally reasonable to believe that when knowing, feeling, and volition manifest themselves, there must be something to know, feel, and will. A psychology without a soul would be much like a science of physics without matter.

Of the substance of the soul we have no knowledge. Dr. Davis says, '' The mind is commonly thought of as a substance. Matter is extended substance. Mind is conscious substance. Matter and mind are known to us only under two totally distinct series of phenomena or qualities. Matter manifests extension, solidity, etc. Mind manifests knowing, feeling, and willing. Now no quality can be conceived as existing apart, by itself, in absolute independence, per se. We necessarily think it the quality of something in which the quality inheres. That which manifests the phenomenon we call substance/'

Mind is called the inner world as distinguished from the outer world. Knowing, feeling, and willing are functions of the mind, not the mind itself. The mind is by one called the Thinker ; and this writer proceeds to inquire, what is the thinker? '' Is it the passing state of consciousness itself, or is it something deeper and less mutable? The passing state is the very embodiment of change. Yet each of us spontaneously considers that by ' I ' he means something always the same."

The object of our study is, not the substance of mind, but the phenomena of mind ; not so much what mind is as what mind does, the states and activities which it exhibits.

Consciousness. The term consciousness has been freely used in the previous discussion ; it is necessary to determine what meaning is to be attached to the word. Compayr^ says: '' Consciousness is the immediate knowledge which we have of whatever takes place in any given part of our being."

Psychology might be defined as the science which treats of the states of consciousness. States of consciousness include all forms of mental activity, and all conditions of feeling. We may define consciousness as the mind knowing itself and its own states and activities, or as the mind being aware of its own activities while they are taking place. We are, therefore, conscious only of the present, and only of the conditions of our own minds. The question, are we conscious of all our own mental activities ? is an interesting one, but cannot be discussed here. There are evidently varying degrees of consciousness, and it is possible that a region of the subconscious may exist in the mind ; that impressions may be made of which, at the time, we are dimly, or not at all, con-

STUDY OF SELF 1 3

scious. In our present study, however, we are concerned only with those states and activities of the soul of which we are clearly and distinctly conscious.

Subjective and Objective. As matter of study, psychology may be divided into subjective and objective. As subjective it is the study of self, or of one's own consciousness by introspection ; that is, by looking into the operation of our own minds. As objective it is the study of persons and things outside of ourselves, outside of consciousness. This is observation, and may also be experimentation. It includes the study of children, of adults, of people of all classes and conditions, and also, at some times and for some purposes, of animals.

Begin with Study of Self. — As just stated, we study ourselves by introspection, by attending to what is going on in consciousness. We thus know that we ourselves think and feel and will ; that we see, hear, taste, and smell. This is the mind looking, so to speak, into itself and observing its own activities. In this way we can investigate, to a certain extent, all the states and acts of our minds. By such careful self-observation we discover as much as it is possible for us to comprehend of the processes by which we learn of form, color, distance, size ; of odor, flavor, and other characteristics of the great multitude of objects all about us. We gain some insight into the wonderful processes of retaining and recalling what we have once learned, of imagining, judging, and so forth. Of all these things we get no knowledge except by the study of consciousness.

Connection with the Body. In this introspective study of self we soon discover that the states and activities of our minds are closely associated with states, conditions, and movements of the body, especially of what we call the nervous system. We discover under what conditions, both of mind and body, we have feelings of pain and pleasure, of joy and sorrow, of good will and ill will, of pity and indignation, and of the marvelous variety of other feelings. We discover the external causes which excite these feelings in our consciousness ; the circumstances under which they arise, and the means by which they may be controlled, allayed, or entirely removed. We learn, also, something of the relation between our thinking and our feeling and willing. We discover that if we think in a certain way, we have a particular sort of feeling; if we think in a different way, we have a different kind of feeling. These and many other things in relation to the movements of the mind and of the relation of mind and body we learn by this study of ourselves.

We discover, moreover, that many of the inner activities of consciousness are followed by outer activities of body, usually called motor activities. For instance, the feeling of anger is generally followed by certain movements of the limbs, by vigorous movements of the muscles of the face, by a peculiar appearance of the eyes, and often by a rough and harsh mode of speech.

The inner feeling of kindness and good will is followed by outer manifestations which indicate the state of the soul. At this point we are not studying the causes of these states of consciousness ; these causes will be considered further on. It is sufificient here to say that the inner condition and the outer manifestation soon become

STUDY OF OTHERS 1 5

thoroughly associated with each other. Of necessity, in the study of self, we begin with that which is within, and proceed to discover how it affects the outer man, the physical organism. This necessarily leads to the study of the body ; that is, especially to the study of the nervous system.

Study of Others. In the objective study of children or of adults, the order of study is reversed. We cannot directly look into the mind of another. Consequently we must begin with a careful examination of the conditions and appearance of the body, of the muscles of the face, of the eyes ; indeed, of the whole physical organism. The mode of speech must also be studied. These outer manifestations indicate the inner state of the mind. Our conclusion is that the state of consciousness which produces certain motor and other manifestations in us will produce the same or similar manifestations in others.

Children can be studied almost anywhere. They are all about us. They can be observed and studied in the home, on the .playground, on the street, in the school. An intelligent observer may commence this form of study at the very beginning of a child's life, watching for the first indications of intelligence in the infant, and noting when and how the senses, one after another, exhibit signs of activity. The observer may, in this way, discover what forms of mental activity first manifest themselves, and what the order of development is, and what is the rate of progress. The mind of the young child may thus be learned to a certain extent, and also the relation of the development of the mind to the l6 INTRODUCTORY

growth of the body. The external indications, the movements of the limbs, of the hands, the head, and the eyes, and of the whole body, — these indications of mental states and acts can be detected and described. Such observations may be kept up through the whole period of childhood and youth, and even into the period of maturity. All the steps of a child's progress in physical, mental, and moral development may be noted and registered, together with the apparent influence of times, circumstances, and environment generally. In the school such observations may be made by any teacher who has made mind, especially her own mind, a subject of careful study. The effects upon the mind of pursuing different objects and topics of study, the results of different methods of instruction and management can be compared. From such comparisons valuable practical conclusions may often be derived.

Experimental Study. An experiment may be descibed as a carefully conducted series of observations, having a special end in view, and carried on under prepared and somewhat artificial conditions. The ** New Psychology " deals very largely with experiments. These belong mostly, if not altogether, within the province of physiological psychology, and deal with manifestations of mind in very close connection with the action of the special nerves of sense. Experiments made by competent observers with necessary apparatus are of much interest and considerable value. For further suggestions as to experiments, refer to the appendix.

Some Obstacles in Study of Self. Introspection requires the mind to observe its own states while they

OBSTACLES IN STUDY OF THE MIND 17

exist, and its own activities while they are going on, or else it must study these through memory. As soon as the mind pauses, so to speak, to examine and analyze its own states and acts, these must be, to some extent, interrupted, and, consequently, cease to be entirely natural. If the observation is made through memory, after the states and acts have passed, some elements will probably escape notice. Experience, however, will enable one to avoid these difficulties to a considerable extent, and to observe without interrupting very seriously the movement of the ^* stream of consciousness."

In the Observation of Others. One of the chief difficulties in the way of reaching trustworthy conclusions concerning the phenomena of mind by the study of others is the limited field open to any one observer. Moreover, the contents of the minds of young children, and the direction of their mental activities, must be determined very largely by their immediate environment. Given the surroundings of a child, it will be comparatively easy to tell, with a good measure of accuracy, the ideas which he must have and the general direction which the current of his thinking must take. The observation, therefore, should have for its main purpose, not so much to discover what children know at a particular stage of development, since that may be determined, to a large extent, beforehand, as to ascertain what use they have made of the material of knowledge about them ; what effect it has produced upon them ; what influence it has had and is having upon their mental and moral life. The purpose is to discover the nature of the mental and moral activities of childhood, the processes and the rate of their l8 INTRODUCTORY

development, and the conditions most favorable to healthy growth.

Such study should not be confined to young children ; every age and condition of life affords material for profitable observation. For parents and teachers especially, the mental and moral characteristics manifested during the period when the physical organism is approaching maturity furnish matter worthy of particular attention. Going beyond the province of ordinary observation, the study of the psychical peculiarities of savages, of partially civilized peoples, of the neglected and criminal classes, and of the insane, supplies valuable material for the student of psychology.

In the study of adults we shall frequently be in danger of drawing wrong conclusions from the fact that they have become accustomed to conceal their states of mind to a considerable extent. Most of these difficulties can be avoided if the observer is skillful and has had a good deal of experience.

In addition to study by introspection and observation, much study of mental phenomena can be had in connection with our reading, especially in the reading of biographies and histories. We should also compare the results of our own investigations with the conclusions given in books treating of psychology. All these methods of study should be combined.

Connection of Mind and Body. In our study of self by introspection and of others by observation, we discover a very close connection between mind and body, especially between the mind and the nervous system ; consequently, in order to understand the activities of

CONNECTION OF MIND AND BODY I9

mind, its states and acts, we must become acquainted with the nature and organization of this system, which, while it forms one great whole, is usually, for convenience of treatment, subdivided into two parts or lesser systems, one being called the sympathetic system and the other the cerebro-spinal system.

The sympathetic system consists of chains of nervous ganglia lying along the sides and in front of the spinal column, connected with one another and also, at some points, with the spinal nerves. This system influences the muscles of the vital organs, those of the heart and of some of the other organs. The action of these muscles does not affect consciousness to any considerable extent, nor volition. In the study of mind, therefore, it will not be necessary to give much attention to the sympathetic system.

The cerebro-spinal system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, the medulla oblongata, and the nerves branching off from these. The close connection of the various parts of this system with mental action, makes it necessary to study these parts and their relations to the activities of mind very carefully. The next chapter will be given to this study.

TOPICS OF THE CHAPTER.

1. Psychology defined.

2. Definition of Ladd and James.

3. Physiological psychology ; what it embraces,

4. Empirical psychology ; Lindner.

5. The old psychology.

6. The new psychology. The relation between the two.

7. Quotations from President Hall and others.

8. Methods of the new psychology.

9. Professor Le Conte's opinion.

10. The mind or soul defined.

11. Dr. Davis's view of substance.

12. The object of our study.

13. Consciousness defined.

14. Subjective study of psychology.

15. Objective study ; how extensive.

16. Begin with self; why, etc.

17. Connection of mind and body.

18. Some things which v:e learn.

19. Study of others ; how pursued.

20. Study of children.

21. Experimental study.

22. Some obstacles in the study of self.

23. Obstacles in the study of others.

24. What we should study in children.

25. Study in reading.

26. Connection of mind and body.

27. Nervous systems ; which to be studied.

CHAPTER 11.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS.

Nerve Matter, or nerve tissue, is of two kinds, the white and the gray. The white naatter is composed of very minute fibers, varying in diameter from y^Vo" ^^ h)^\qq of an inch. These fibers may be compared to exceedingly fine threads. A large number of the fibers united form a cord called a nerve.

The gray matter is composed of nerve cells of a great variety of forms, and varying in diameter from -g^^ to g^Vo" ^f ^^ inch. A collection of these cells forms a nerve center. The gray matter of the brain is the largest collection of such cells, and the spinal cord the next largest. The small centers are called ganglia, the largest of which constitute the sympathetic nervous system. The nerve cells generate nerve force, and also receive such force from other cells and transmit it again. The nerve fibers connect the various nerve centers and convey the nerve force in all directions. They perform in the body an office similar to that performed by the telegraph and telephone wires in a great city, conveying information and orders from one point to another, and from the central station to the most distant parts^of the organism. In the great nerve center, the brain, the white matter is within, and the gray matter on the outside.

In the nerves the arrangement is reversed, the gray matter being within and the white matter on the outside.

Two Nervous Systems. There are two nervous systems, the sympathetic, or ganglionic, system, and the cerebro-spinal system. The sympathetic system consists of two rows of internal ganglia, one row on each side of the spinal column. Nerves go from these ganglia to the various internal organs, but not to the skin or to the organs of the special senses ; they are not under the control of the will. The processes of digestion, circulation, respiration, and absorption are controlled by this system. The ganglia are connected together by small nerve fibers, and they are also connected in the same way with the cerebro-spinal system. As this system has little direct relation to manifestations of mind it is unnecessary to give it further attention. The cerebro-spinal system consists of the brain, taken as a whole, and the spinal cord, with the nerves which have their origin in these central organs.

The Brain itself, disregarding some of the smaller parts, is subdivided into the cerebrum, called the large brain, the cerebellum, called the little brain, and the medulla oblongata, which is an enlargement of the spinal cord after it enters the skull. It is presumed that students of psychology have at least an elementary knowledge of the brain and the nervous system generally, so that much of minute detail will be unnecessary in this connection. It is recommended that, while studying this chapter, some brief work upon the nervous system be carefully reviewed.

In a restricted sense, the term brain is sometimes confined to the cerebrum, on account of its size and its

RELATIVE WEIGHT OF BRAIN AND BODY 23

probably superior position in connection with psychical phenomena.

The weight of the brain will usually, but not always, bear a natural relation to the weight of the body as a whole. Among adult Americans and Europeans, the average weight of the brain of the male is from 49 to 50 ounces, and of the female from 44 to 46 ounces. The weight of the brain, as compared with the weight of the body, is essentially the same in both sexes, but this relative weight of brain and body varies greatly at different periods of life.

Relative Weight of Brain and Body. Dr. Caldwell, in his work on Mind and Brain, gives the following table : At birth (male), i to 5.85.

At birth (female), i to 6.50.

At 10 years of age, i to 14.

At 20 years of age, i to 30.

At later periods, i to 36.

In maturity the proportion varies from i to 36 to I to 40, according to some other authorities.

The brain reaches its maximum size before the fifteenth year, but the processes of internal development go on till the age of thirty and perhaps to a later time. Late in life there is a slow decrease in the weight of the brain. As a rule great intellectual power is associated with a large brain. The brain of Cuvier, the great naturalist, weighed a little over 64 ounces ; the brain of Daniel Webster, the great statesman, weighed 63^ ounces. There have been, however, many noted men with comparatively small brains. Evidently quality is of as much importance as quantity.