Delaware, Lackawanna & western railroad

Front matter

NO.

This book is charged to the employe to whom issued, and its price, 50 cents, will be deducted from his pay unless the book is returned to the proper offioer on leaving the service.

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Chapter I

“All matters said and done relating to the economical use of coal on locomotives will be fruitless of good results if the enginemen are ignorant of the simple principles of combustion, and careless about educating themselves in this necessary branch of their calling. Enginemen showing a disposition of carelessness in the use of coal, or in any way ignoring the principles governing its economical use, are as much unfitted to have charge of a locomotive as if such ignorance and care¬ lessness were shown toward the rules governing the operations of trains.”

Annual Cost of Fuel.

Excepting wages paid to engineers and firemen, the largest single expense in the operation of the Dela¬ ware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad is for locomotive fuel, which for the year ending December 31, 1900, cost the Company $1,285,492.98. In other words, the Company pays over $1,285,000 a year for the heat to make the steam to run its locomotives, for it is plain that the fuel is burned for no other pur¬ pose than the generation of this needed heat. In the year named the total amount of wages paid both engineers and firemen was only $24,632.58 more than the cost of the fuel burned by the locomotives.

The above quotation from the report of a committee of the Master Mechanics' Association shows that simi¬ lar care should be exercised by engineers to use fuel economically as to haul trains with safety. As is well known, carelessness in the movement of trains often results in damage to and destruction of the property of the Company.

Fuel is Property.

The property of the Company consists not only of its right of way and roadbed, rolling equipment and buildings, but also of each article of supply purchased for its needs. The fuel supply for locomotives (pur¬ chased for use, not waste) is property, exceed¬ ing in value many cars and many engines. Careless or inefficient enginemen who waste fuel destroy the prop¬ erty of the Company, in a different way, but with simi¬ lar net results as if they smashed cars and engines.

Therefore it is desired that all engineers and fire¬ men, without relaxing in the slightest the* necessary vigilance for safety, shall yet direct their earnest attention and efforts to economize fuel in every practi¬ cable way, and avoid any unnecessary waste or loss.

Qualifications of Firemen.

Good judgment is a locomotive fireman’s most important need, aside from necessary intelligence and physical ability. Firemen aiming to make their work as easy as possible, especially those desiring promo¬ tion, should try to cultivate and give early evidence of the possession of this first necessary requirement

OF A GOOD ENGINEER.

The display of good judgment by a fireman while performing his duties proves him to possess a clear head and a steady nerve — qualities absolutely neces¬ sary in railway operating, for the safety of life and property. On the contrary, the display of poor judgment by a fireman declares not only his lack of fitness for his present work, but proves him to be utterly unfit to be entrusted with the more grave and responsible duties of an engineer. Promotion on railways seldom finds such men.

Good judgment correctly measures all the condi¬ tions, quickly when necessary, and prompts the right action at the right time. There is abundant opportu¬ nity for its exercise in firing a locomotive, and although much information shall be given in these Instructions about the art of firing, yet the value of this to a fire¬ man, or to the Company, will depend altogether on the faithfulness and good judgment with which it is applied to regulate his daily practice.

As we proceed with the study of the best methods of firing and running locomotives, the need of correct judgment will constantly appear. No matter how much a fireman may know, if he does not exercise his knowledge with a broad comprehension of all the conditions involved in his work, he will surely do that work in a wrong way. He will blunder. His blunders are the result of poor judgment. Another man hav¬ ing perhaps a smaller stock of knowledge, but zealous to consider and take advantage of all the conditions involved in his work, will do the work properly; he will exercise good judgment, and in doing so he will save himself much unnecessary labor, and the Com¬ pany much expensive fuel.

Willingness is the second great need of the suc¬ cessful fireman. This means a disposition to learn and practice the best methods of work and to profit by the experience and advice of engineers, especially the engineer responsible for the proper performance of the engine on which a fireman is employed, unless, of course, his advice should be opposed to the rules of the Company, or the dictates of intelligent common sense. Yet the authority of the engineer while on the road should always be respected by self-respecting firemen, remembering that the engineer is, in reality, the captain of the engine, responsible for its condition, its safety and its performance. Firemen who aim to be engineers themselves some day should be too respect¬ ful of the occupation of locomotive running to falter in due respect and obedience to their engineers.

Preparing the Engine for the Run.

In getting an engine ready to leave on its run it is always best to “ get around ” or be on hand in ample season before leaving-time. There is nearly always enough to do before starting to keep a fireman busy thirty or forty minutes.

The aim of the men who “ fire up ” the engines is to generate sufficient steam pressure to run the engines out of the roundhouse and across the turntable. These men are sometimes careless about the condition of the bed of fire on the grates, especially about placing the fire evenly over the entire grate surface. They are apt to leave the corners bare, and especially to leave bare the forward part of the grates, next to the tube-sheet. This is just the part that should be kept well covered with live fire in order to prevent cold air being drawn into the tubes to .chill them and cause them to leak.

When air is allowed to pass through the fire-box of a locomotive without being brought into close contact with burning fuel it reaches the tubes much colder than they are, and immediately chills, contracts and damages them. This action and injury is intensified by every increase of draft under such circumstances. Therefore the use of the blower, and all means of increasing the draft, should be avoided as much as possible until the grates are covered all over with

LIVE FIRE.

In mounting his engine to go out, therefore, it becomes a fireman’s first duty to look at his fire and note its condition. “A stitch in time ” may save both delay and trouble. As soon as he is ready for work he should see that the grates are completely covered with live fire, and tfiat if any fresh coal is needed on the fire it shall be supplied. The height of the water-level and the amount of steam pressure on the boiler must be his guides in this matter. It is necessary that at leaving time the steam pressure shall be nearly as high as is allowed, and that the boiler shall be as full of water as it properly may be, generally with two “ full gauges,” or a height of water-level to equal the same.

If the steam pressure is low it should be raised gradually, before starting. If the water-level is low, it should be raised to the proper height by operating the injector in such a way that it will cause no great

FALL OF STEAM PRESSURE.

After making sure that his fire is in good condition, a fireman should next make equally sure that the tube-sheet is clear of adhering clinker or “ honeycomb ”; ■ also that the ash-pan is clean and that (on engines hav¬ ing shaking grates) the grates are all level and con¬ nected. This must be done by getting down off the engine and looking carefully into the ash-pan. Notice if each bolt connecting the grate-rods and grate-bars is in place. Sometimes these get displaced through rough usage by roundhouse men; and it is very important that any such defects should be discovered and reported before starting out, otherwise it is likely that the dis¬ connected grates will be. burned, and delay to the train may result, either of which might prove disastrous to reputation or position.

Before starting the fireman should also make sure that the smoke-box is clear of cinders; and that he has upon the engine the necessary tools for hand¬ ling the coal and attending to his fire. Every needed preparation should be made before leaving so that, after starting, full attention may be given to the work of properly firing the engine.

Thorough inspection before starting of both the fire and its appurtenances by firemen, and the gen¬ eral condition of the engine by engineers is of first importance, so as to avoid engine failures on the road, and the resulting expensive delays to trains.

CHAPTER II. Bituminous and Anthracite Coal

Two kinds of fuel are used on this Railroad — Anthracite Coal and Bituminous Coal.

To properly understand the difference in the burn¬ ing of anthracite and bituminous coal, it is necessary to understand their difference in composition; and this is best explained by reference to the original for¬ mation of coal, as taught by science.

The great trees that first grew upon the earth are known as the sigillaria or seal tree; and they were of curious formation. They were four or five feet thick, almost branchless and very tall. They some¬ times had a few thick limbs near the top, and they were covered with a long grass-like foliage. These trees grew rapidly and had a pithy interior, and while their trunks had but little strength as wood, they were well adapted to the formation of coal.

The crust of the earth was yet comparatively thin, and the internal disturbances frequently caused much greater earthquakes than we know now. In these up¬ heavals of the soil whole forests were buried under the sand and clay beds. The new soil gave birth to fresh growths of trees and vegetation, and these in turn were swallowed up and buried by the earthquakes, or the shifting of the soil through the actions of the waters and the winds.

The buried wood became a soft, black substance that contained all the elements of the wood, only in a changed form. This soft substance was com¬ pressed and hardened by the immense pressure of the ever-increasing layers of soil above it, sometimes hundreds and sometimes thousands of feet deep, and became the coal that we burn today.

Bituminous Coal.

The kind of coal thus produced is known as bituminous or “ soft ” coal; and it is composed of carbon, sulphur and earthy matter mixed in its formation, and gaseous matter and moisture. These substances are generally found in ordinary soft coal about as follows:

Fixed carbon.55 per cent

Gaseous matter and moisture.35 per cent

Ash (incombustible matter). 10 per cent

Anthracite Coal.

Anthracite, or “ hard ” coal, differs from bitumi¬ nous or “ soft ” coal in the same way that coke does. In fact, anthracite coal is natural coke. It is commonly known that coke is made by heating coal red hot in a retort from which air is excluded, per¬ mitting its gaseous matter to escape, but not permit¬ ting the coal to burn.

This is exactly what occurred to form anthracite coal. It was previously bituminous coal, but some¬ time during the many thousands of years it lay buried far in the depths of the soil, it was subjected to intense heat, doubtless from some disturbance of the earth’s crust that permitted the heat of the internal fires (rag¬ ing even now, as our volcanic eruptions show) to reach the imbedded coal and heat it red or white hot, thus causing its gaseous matter to escape exactly in the same way as we make coke today by heating coal to redness in a retort from which air is excluded.

The coal thus heated gave up its gaseous matter, which escaped, and the great pressure of the soil and rocks (averaging 80 pounds of weight per cubic foot) above the hot, soft coke, compressed it into the solid hard blocks which we know as anthracite coal.

The following table shows the composition of an average quality of anthracite coal:

Fixed carbon. 92 per cent

Gaseous matter and moisture. 5 per cent

Ash . 3 per cent

Anthracite coal is nearly all “ fixed ” carbon, and burns on the grate in the solid state, as red-hot or white-hot coals, but bituminous coal is generally over one-third gaseous matter that burns on the fire as flame or else produces smoke.

Process, of Combustion, Anthracite Coal.

It is important to know that the coal and the air can combine (burn) in different ways, and in doing so give off greatly different amounts of heat. Of course, as our object in burning the coal to make steam for a locomotive is to get all the heat we can, we should be careful that the coal burns in the way that will pro¬ duce the most heat. If the supply of air to the fire is sufficient the coal will burn perfectly, and give off three times more heat than if the supply of air is restricted and the combustion is imperfect. Firemen who do not keep their bed of fire thin, and the grates free of ashes, in order to permit free access of air through the fire, struggle uselessly against this disadvantage.

If, in burning, the coal is supplied with sufficient air the combustion will be perfect, and a pound of good coal so burned (under perfect conditions) will make enough heat to turn about twelve pounds of cold water into steam. If the supply of air is restricted, then imperfect combustion will result. A pound of coal so burned will make two-thirds less heat than if suffi¬ cient air were supplied, or only enough heat to convert about four pounds of cold water into steam; hence it is apparent that if the supply of air to a fire is restricted in any way the heat of the fire is greatly reduced.

This is the Chief Lesson in Firing. A fireman can do nothing that will so effectually make steam, save coal, and lighten his labor as to keep his bed of fire in such condition that the air has always easy access through it to the fresh coal he puts on the fire.

About three hundred cubic feet of air must pass through our fire to give the best results from the burn¬ ing of each pound of coal put upon it. Shovels, such as locomotives are generally provided with, hold, when ordinarily full, fifteen pounds of coal. When an engine is in need of a “fire” sometimes four shovel¬ fuls will be scattered over the surface of the fire. For the sake of illustration we will say four shovelfuls, sixty pounds, and this quantity will last about three minutes;—18,000 cubic feet of air, eight box cars

FULL, MUST PASS THROUGH THE FIRE IN THIS SHORT time to perfectly burn the charge of coal, or burn it in the way that will produce its greatest heat.

Access of Too Much Air.

While it is thus plainly important that to secure the best results, a free admission of air through the grates

Cross Section. End Elevation. Longitudinal Sections *flew, Showing Boiler Cut in Half, Lengthwise.

View Showing Boiler Cut Half-way Across Through Fire-box.

BOILER OF A NTH I! CITE COAL BURNINC LOCOMOTIVE, CLASS 1 9-B - DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA & WESTERN RAILROAD.

is necessary, yet it must not be understood that the more air admitted the better, for all in excess of the quantity needed for perfect combustion has no effect except to absorb the heat of the fire and carry it away.

Much care, therefore, must be taken to keep the bed of fire thick enough, and of uniform depth over the entire grate surface, to prevent access of too much air. The time to guard against this most carefully is in shaking the grates which, while running, should only be done after a fresh “ fire ” has been put in. Even then much care must be taken not to shake them so hard as to. injure or make holes in the fire.

CHAPTER III. Firing Small Anthracite Coal

As soon as a fireman arrives on his engine, ready for work, he should notice if the fire has been wellcleaned ; also if there are any dark or dead spots in the fire. If the fire has not been thoroughly cleaned, any remaining ashes or clinkers should be knocked out. Dead spots may be detected, if any exist, by a brief application of the blower with closed fire doors. Such a spot results from incomplete distribution of live fire over the grates after the fire was cleaned, and putting green coal on places where there was not sufficient fire to ignite it. Such a defect in the fire must be cured before starting, or its evil results will be felt afterward in more work for the fireman and less steam for the engine. The green coal must be shoved or pulled away from the dead spot, and good, live fire put in place of the coal thus removed. It is best to then cover the place with the coal removed from it (now considerably heated) and, if necessary, apply the blower long enough to thoroughly ignite it.

Preparing Fire for the Start.

In preparing the fire for the start, after it has been cleaned, or from a “ bank,” great care must be taken to spread the remaining live coals so that they will thoroughly cover the entire grate surface, not only in the center but well up in the corners and along the sides, before any fresh coal is put on. It may be necessary to use the blower at this stage of the work, to bring the newly spread coals up to a bright cherryred heat — not a white heat — before adding any fresh coal.

After the fire has been spread, and found to be or is put in good condition, it should be completely, but lightly, covered over with fresh coal. Judgment must be used as to whether an application of the blower is necessary to properly ignite this fresh coal. The blower must be used as little as is necessary. If there is switching to do, or if leaving time is distant, use of the blower may be avoided.

The amount of coal necessary to build up the fire to the proper depth, to raise the steam pressure and to fill the boiler, must be put on the fire gradually — a few shovelfuls at a time, spread lightly and evenly over the surface; this to be given time to become thor¬ oughly ignited and get to burning well before another equally light and evenly spread charge of coal is added. Circumstances may require the use of the blower in this work; but if such use can be avoided without delay or fluctuating pressure a better fire will be produced with simply the natural draft acting on the fire with closed doors, stimulated by the air pump exhausts. Experience has shown that a fire built up with the blower has more clinker formation started in it than one built up by natural draft.

It is of the greatest importance to have a good fire to start with. If the fire is not put in good shape before starting it will be found hard, if not impossible, to put it in good shape afterward.

At leaving time it is necessary that there shall be a bed of fire covering the entire grate surface, about three or four inches deep and level in the center, but from three to five inches deeper along the sides, in the corners, and at the back of the fire-box, as it is at these places that the draft acts the strongest. The exact depth of the fire at starting must conform to the weight of the train and the character of the road, therefore to the way the engine will be worked — hard or easily — in start¬ ing the train and forcing it into speed. Whatever coal is needed to keep up steam, and keep the fire in good condition during this hard task of work, must be placed on the fire and thoroughly ignited before starting.

At starting, the fire should be burning brightly all over; and while the use of the blower is to be avoided as much as possible in preparing and building up the fire, yet the blower can often be used to good advantage a minute or so just before starting to create a hot, brightly burning fire for the start.

During the start, and while the heavy full-stroke exhausts continue to act severely on the fire, the doors should be placed on the latch, with as wide an opening as the engine will steam freely with. These openings permit the entrance of enough air to the fire-box to con¬ siderably reduce the tearing effects of the strong draft on the fire.

Firing While Running.

In firing anthracite coal the greatest care is neces¬ sary to place fresh coal where and when it is needed. The fire must be closely watched, and feeding must be regulated by its requirements. With the burning coal the white heat is the highest heat : and it is also the beginning of decline. Small burning coals grow from the “ green ” to the “ ripe ” or white-hot state in a very few minutes. An anthracite fire is ripe at a white heat — ripe for fresh coal to be put on.

Anthracite coal was known to the early settlers of Pennsylvania for many years before it came to be re¬ garded as of any possible use as a fuel. When its value as such was first announced the people laughed at the idea of any one trying to burn “ those black rocks.” Attempts at burning it extended over a number of years, often ending in discouraging failures before finally its value as a fuel and the proper method of burning it began slowly to be understood. For many years it was commonly known as “ stone coal ”; and it was found difficult not only to start a fire with the coal, but also to replenish the fire so that it would not go out. The coal had to be heated red-hot before it would begin to burn. If the fire was permitted to burn low before fresh coal was put on, then it could not heat the fresh coal red-hot and thus ignite it, or make it burn.

This old difficulty is still characteristic of the burn¬ ing of anthracite coal, and forces stricter attention in firing than is necessary in burning any other kind of coal. The fire must be watched for the development of white spots — places in the fire where the coal reaches the white heat. This being the moment of high¬ est temperature, it is also the moment for fresh coal to be added, to insure its rapid ignition and the main¬ tenance of a hot fire. If through lack of attention, the fire is permitted to burn past the white heat, and die to a red heat, the coal then put on may not catch fire promptly, or may even find insufficient heat in the cool¬ ing coals beneath it to set it on fire at all. Then that place in the fire will “ go out,” making extra work necessary for the fireman to clean out the dead spot, and possibly crippling the engine through lack of sufficient steam until the evil is corrected, and the fire is again put into good condition.

Wide Fire-boxes.

The small sizes of coal are necessarily burned in fire-boxes having large grate areas. Two conditions make this necessary. First, a softer draft is required than in burning coarse coal, to prevent the small coal from being lifted from the fire and thrown out the stack; second, the only way the small coal can be successfully burned is by spreading it in thin layers over the surface of the fire. If dumped in heaps on the fire, or put on heavily, it forms a “ bank ” through which the air required for its burning can not pass. Any part of a fire “ banked ” in this way is “ put out of action ” so far as steam-making is concerned.

Experience has taught that the smaller the size of coal, the larger must be the grate area on which it is burned, the thinner must be the bed of fire, and the softer must be the draft, for the reasons stated. With the very wide fire-boxes, the softer draft used is not less strong than the harder draft noticed on engines with smaller fire-boxes. The draft may be stronger in the wide fire-box, but being distributed or spread over a greater fire surface it acts more softly on every part of the fire; just as when a shovelful of fine coal is spread over a large portion of the fire, the layer thus added is thinner at every part than if spread over a smaller portion.

As a modified draft is thus necessary for burning small coal, it follows that the bed of fire must be kept as light and as free from ashes and clinkers as possi¬ ble, so that the air required for burning the coal may find easy passage through it. To keep the fire in this condition while running, it must be carried nearly level and fed as lightly as possible consistent with its needs and the way the engine is working. Each shovel¬ ful of coal put on the fire should be spread as largely over its surface as possible, and never placed thickly on any one part. With an engine working ordinarily on level grades, only one or two shovelfuls of coal should be used per “ fire,” and these should be thor¬ oughly scattered over the surface, or those portions of it that arrive at a white heat.

When an engine is working hard on up grades the same method of feeding the fire must be adhered to; although during such work feeding may necessarily be more frequent, and the charges of coal per “ fire ” may possibly have to be made three, or even four shov¬ elfuls, with the largest fire-boxes.

Charges of over three shovelfuls per “ fire ” while working ordinarily on level grades, or over four shovelfuls per “ fire ” on up grades, constitute un¬ necessarily heavy firing, and are forbidden.

In feeding the fire while running the aim should be to keep it as level as possible, and to feed always and only on those portions of the fire that have reached a bright heat. Nothing is gained by covering with fresh coal those portions of the fire which are only red-hot, and which have not yet reached a white-heat. Until such portions become white hot they have not given off all or the highest heat they are capable of giving, and fresh coal should not be put on them until they do this. In other words, more coal should never be used until we have gotten all the heat we can out of what we have already used.

Some firemen carelessly (in the past) have thrown on the fire twelve and fifteen shovelfuls of coal at a time. This was practically putting a “ wet blanket ” on the fire, and its general and immediate effect was to reduce the steam pressure ten pounds or more. Too heavy firing results not only in always preventing rapid evaporation, but it is damaging to the boiler, and also damaging to the fire on the grates — hastening the formation of clinkers in the fire, that thereafter act to prevent the entrance of air, and thus deaden the fire — forcing upon the fireman the extra necessary labor to clean it, or to shovel a double quantity of coal to keep up steam. Too heavy firing also invariably results in the formation of “ banks ” in the fire, each of which becomes the father of a clinker. When such banks are formed, their best treatment is to let them alone until they burn up, or an opportunity occurs to fix the fire. Breaking them up, or raking them over, will largely increase the formation of clinker.

Ordinarily, in feeding the fire, the doors should be closed between each shovelful of coal. Circumstances may alter this somewhat, as when an engine is about to “ pop,” and advantage is being taken of this to put in a fresh “fire.” Also when coal is being put in just before an engine is to be shut off, and it is desired to reduce the steam pressure slightly to prevent “ pop¬ ping.” But generally the fire should not be kept so hot that it will be desirable to cool it at such times with open fire-doors.

If holes are pulled in the fire they should be leveled over with the poker or the hoe — never filled up with fresh coal. When a dead spot develops in a fire it may not be necessary to clean the fire because of this. Probably the evil can be remedied by pulling the grate-bar nearest the spot, and knocking out the dead coals. Then cover the place with live fire and put on fresh coal.