An inglorious Columbus

Front matter

Class _____ Book coenuG»r DEPosir.

INGLORIOUS COLUMBUS;

OB,

Preface

That there are many who could have done much better than myself the work which I have undertaken to do, I am well aware ; but, as those who are more competent have failed to give to the Chinese records of a distant eastern land that careful study which they seem to me to demand, I have thought it best to publish the results of my own examination of the subject.

It does not appear unjust to former writers upon the subject to call attention to the fact that, with the noteworthy exception of Mr. Leland, they have paid but little attention to the history or characteristics of the country lying in the direction and at the distance from China indicated by the Chinese as the location of the lands to which they gave the names of "Fu-sang" and the "Country of Women"; and yet a careful examination of the descriptions of this region of the world given by other authorities, and their comparison with the details of the Chinese account, and with the minutise of Asiatic civilization, are almost the only means by which the truth or falsity of the Chinese records can be established. The comparisons of this nature, made from such data as I have been able to obtain, reveal so many peculiar coincidences and remove so many difficulties over which earlier investigators have stumbled, that the hypothesis that the Chinese account was derived from a traveler who had visited Mexico is rendered almost infinitely more probable than any other conjecture that can be entertained upon the subject. It is true that some objections still remain, but the few statements that it seems difficult vi PEEFACE.

to explain are far oiitweiglied bj the evidence presented by the numerous details of the account which are proved to be true. The explanations suggested as to some doubtful points might seem more plausible if they were confined to that elucidation of the difficulty which, upon the whole, appears to be its most probable solution. I have preferred, however, to note all possible exj)lanations that have suggested themselves to me, believing that in some cases the truth which fm-ther investigation will reveal may possibly lie in some interpretation which now seems improbable.

Errors will undoubtedly be found in this work, but I have hoped to excite sufficient interest in the question under examination to induce more competent scholars to bring the truth to light regarding those points as to which I have failed. I am confident, however, that, after the elimination of all errors, it will be found that the great mass of evidence that is presented that America was discovered in the fifth century of the Christian era remains practically untouched ; and that as a whole the work will be much easier to ignore than to answer by those who may differ from its conclusions.

All attempts to establish a truth which has not been generally received are met by the difficulty that it is almost impossible to interest in the subject those who have formerly paid no attention to it, and that those who have studied it are strongly tempted by a natural regard for their own self-complacency to deny that there is anything more in the subject than they have been able to perceive for themselves. I, therefore, can not hope that my views will immediately meet with general acceptance; but that their truth will ultimately be recognized, I can not doubt.

Some quotations have been made at second-hand, and from authorities which I would not have given if I had had easy access to a better library than my own ;- and some books which I desired to consult I have not been able to obtain. Due allowance should be made for these facts.

It is proper that I should express my thanks for the kind responses which I have received to my applications for assistance and information from many to whom I was unknown,

PREFACE. vii

and who may have believed my convictions upon the subject under investigation to be but poorly founded.

Among those to whom I am indebted may be named Mr. H. H. Bancroft and his assistants, Messrs. Henry L. Oak, John H. Gilmour, and John Donovan. Mr. Addison Van Name, Librarian of Yale College, Mr. George Bullen, Keeper of the Printed Books of the British Museum, and Mr. I. A. Leonard, of the Astor Library, have assisted me to obtain information from a few works not found in my own library. Mr. Kwong^ Ki Chiu, formerly Secretary of the Chinese Board of Education, Mr. Saum Song Bo, a graduate of the Chicago University, and Mr. John E. Vrooman, Translator of Chinese at the United States Custom-House of San Francisco, have explained doubtful passages in the Chinese text to me. They should not be held responsible, however, for any errors that may be thought to exist in my translation. Mr. Charles G. Leland, M. the Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, and the late Professor S. Wells Williams gave me permission to quote from their works.

Professors Spencer F. Baird, Asa Gray, William H. Brewer, O. C. Marsh, and Edward D. Cope, the Rev. Joseph Edkins, the Eight Rev. Channing M. Williams, Dr. Felix L. Oswald, Dr. D. G. Brinton, Messrs. Edward L. Morse and J. H. Trumbull, the late W. R. Morley, Chief Engineer of the Sonora Railroad, Mr. W. H. Pratt, Secretary of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, Mr. A. Knoflach, formerly of San Francisco, Mr. W. W. Rhodes, formerly of the city of Mexico, and Messrs. Maisonneuve et Cie., of Paris, have all rendered me kind assistance, as have also the Hons. Lucius H. Foote, Minister to Corea, Percival Lowell, Secretary of the Corean Embassy, David H. Strother, Consul-General at the city of Mexico, Joseph D. Hoff, Consul at Coatzacoalcos, and John A. Sutter, Jr., Consul at Acapulco.

To all, my thanks are due.

Edwakd p. Yixestg.

Chicago, III., U. S. A., March 3, 1885.

ILLUSTRATIOIsra

FIO. PAGE

Map. Route followed by Hwui Shan .... Frontispiece

1. An Image of Buddha 128

2. Bas-relief found at Palenque 128

3. Sculpture from Island of Cyprus 129

4. Sculpture found at Uxmal 129

5. Ornament above a Door at Ocosingo . . . . . . .130

6. Aureola about Head of Idol 132

7. Altar found at Palenque 133

8. Seated Figure found at Uxmal 134

9. Figure of Buddha at Ellora 135

10. Two Plants described as "Trees" 383

11. A Century-plant in Blossom 385

12. The T'uno-tree and the Wild Mulberry 387

13. Bamboo-sprouts 389

14. Punishment of a Criminal by the Aztecs 465

15. Mount Iztaccihuatl, ok "the White Woman" 507

16. An Aztec Mirror 523

17. An Image found in Campeachy 571

18. Sculptured Tablet at Palenque 591

19. Another Representation of Tablet at Palenque .... 592

20. Bead-relief in Stucco at Palenque 593

21. Detail of Facade of a Building at Uxmal 594

22. A Mexican Image, said to represent Quetzalcoatl .... 595

23. The Temple of Boro-Budor in Java 603

24. The " Palace," or Temple, at Palenque 603

25. The Elephant's-head Head-dress C07

26. Drawing of an Elephant's Head 608

27. Elephant-pipe found in a Field 609

28. Elephant-pipe found in a Mound 609

29. The "Elephant-mound" of Wisconsin 611

30. BiTARA Gana, or Ganesa 612

31. An Aztec God, said to be Teoyaomiqui 613

00I^TEI!TTS.

Chapter I, Page

Inteoductoet ........ 1

The birth of Buddha — His titles — His character — His religious belief — His universal charity — His life as a hermit — The discovery which he imagined that he had made — Desire that all should share its benefits — His command to evangelize the world — The compliance of his discipjlcs — The dispersion from India — Countries visited — Traces of the religion in Europe — Also throughout Asia — And in Alaska — The wanderings of Buddhist priests — Few records preserved — Ease of journey from Asia to America — The Gulf-Stream of the Pacific — Shipwrecks on the Kurile and Aleutian Islands — Records of journeys of Buddhist priests — Their reliability and value — A Chinese record of a visit to an Eastern country — Reasons for crediting the account — Object of this work — Previous discussions of the subject — Plan of this work — The discovery made by de Guignes — Humboldt's views — Klaproth's dissent — The Chevalier de Paravey's essays — Neumann's monograph — Leland's translation and comments — Articles by MM. Perez, Vivien de Saint-Martin, d'Eichthal, Brasseur de Bourbourg, Godron, Jones, Brown, Simson, Bretschneider, Adam, d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, Lobscheid, Channing M. Williams, and S. Wells Williams.

Chapter II

Chinese voyages — Knowledge of foreign lands — Work of Li-jen. a Chinese historian — The country of Fu-sang — The length of the // — Wen-shin — Its identification with Jesso — Ta-han — Its identification with Kamtchatka — The route to Ta-han by land — The country of the Ko-li-han — The She-goei — The Yu-che — Description of Kamtchatka — The land of Lieu-kuci — The description of Fu-sang — No other knowledge of the country — The Pacific coast of North America — A Japanese map — The Kingdom of . Women — Its description — Shipwreck of a Chinese vessel — American traditions — Civilization of American tribes on the Pacific coast — The Mexicans — Horses — Cattle — The fu-sang tree — Mexican writing — Manner in which America was peopled — Similarity of customs in Asia and America — Resemblances in the people — Charlevoix's story — Natives floated upon cakes of ice — The kingdom of Chang-jin — Voyages of other nations — The Arabs — Exploration of the Atlantic — The Canaries — Story of their king — The Cape Verd Islands — Conclusion. B

Chapter III. Page

Klapboth's Dissent . . . . . . .39

Title of de Guignes's article incorrect — Translation of the account of Fti-sang — Vines and horses not found in America — Route to Japan — Length of the li — Identification of Wen-nhin with Jesso — Ta-haii identified with Taraikai or Saghalien — The route to Ta-han by land — The Shy-wei — Lieu-kuei — Fu-sang south of Ta-lian instead of cast — Fti-sang an ancient name of Japan — Analysis of name " Fu-sang " — The paper mulberry — Metals — The introduction of Buddhism — Fantastic tales.

CHAPTER IV. De Paeavey's Suppoet . . . , . .49

America visited by Scandinavians — American tribes emigrants from Asia — Ancient Chinese maps — Researches antedating those of Klaproth — Letter of P^re Gaubil — Ta-han — Lieu-kuei — Identification of these with Kamtchatka — Size of Fu-sang — Views of M. Dumont d'Urville — Length of the li — America lies at the distance and in the direction indicated — The Meropide of Elien — The Hyperboreans — The monuments of Guatemala and Yucatan — The Shan-hai-king — Identification of the fu-sang tree with the metl or maguey — The Japanese Encyclopaedia says Japan is not Fu-sang — The banana or pisang tree may have been the tree called fu-sang — Grapes in America — Milk in America — The bisons of America — Llamas — Horses — Wooden cabins — The ten-year cycle — The titles of the king and nobles — The worship of images — Resemblance of pyramids of America to those of the Buddhists — An image of Buddha— The spread of the Buddhist religion — History of the Chichimecas — Resemblance of Japanese to Mexicans — Analogies of Asiatic and American civilizations pointed out by Humboldt — Credit due de Guignes — Appendix — Ma Twan-lin''s account — The fn-sang said to be the prickly poppy of Mexico — Laws punishing a criminal's family have existed in China — Chinese cycle of sixty years existed in India — Cattle harnessed to carts — The grapes of Fu-sang wild, not cultivated — Another Chinese custom in Fu-sang — The route to Ta-han — The route to Japan very indirect — Priests called lamas both in Mexico and Tartarv.

CHAPTER V. De Paeavet's New Proofs . . . . . .66

De Paravey's researches preceded those of Neumann and d'Eichthal — Con- - nection between the Malay and American languages — Fu-sang located near San Francisco — Chinese picture of a native of Fu-sang — Spotted deer — Cattle-horns in Mexico — Horses — Nations of Northern Asia — Appendix A — Buddhist monuments in America — A figure of Buddha in Yucatan — The worship of Siva — The explorations of Dupaix — Foot-print in the rocks — The cause of eclipses — Pyramids — Appendix B — A Buddhist sanctuary near the Colorado River — The name Quatu-zaca — The Mexicans emigrants from the north — Appendix C — An engraving of a native of Fu-sang — The natives of Oregon — The deer of America — Connection of American and Asiatic tribes — Pearl-fishing — The cochineal insect and the nopal — The people of Coph^ne — American place-names which appear to contain the name Sakya.

CONTENTS. xi

Chapter VI. Pagk

Neumann'8 Monogeaph . . . . . .78

The knowledge of foreign nations possessed by the Chinese — Their precepts — The journey of Lao-tse — Embassies and spies — Knowledge derived from foreign visitors — Its preservation in Chinese records — The introduction of Buddhism — Its command to extend its doctrines to all nations — Chinese system of geography and ethnology — The unity of the Tartars and Red-skins — American languages — The Tunguses, or Eastern Barbarians — The Pe-ti, or Northern Barbarians — The Ainos, or Jebis, and the Negritos — The Wen-shin, or Pictured-people — Embassies between China and Japan — The Country of Dwarfs — The Chinese " Book of Mountains and Seas " — Information given by a Japanese embassador — Kamtchatka, the Tchuktchi, and the Aleuts — Lieukuei — The length of the li — Licukuei, a peninsula — The land of the Je-tshay — The natives of Kamtchat- • ka — Their dwellings — Their clothing — The climate — The animals of the country — The customs of the people — The country of the Wen-shin identified with the Aleutian Islands — Ta-han, or Alaska — The kingdom of Fvrsang and its inhabitants — The Amazons — Fu-sang identified with the western portion of America called Mexico — The fu-sang tree — Only one voyage made — Chinese accounts of Fti-sang — The distance from Ta-han, or Alaska, indicates that Fu-sang is Mexico — The oldest history of America — Successive tribes — The ruins of Mitla and Palenque — Something of earlier races to be learned from the condition of the Aztecs — Pyramidical monuments — If Buddhism existed in America, it was an impure form— The myth of Huitzilopochtli — l:\ie fu-sang, the maguey, or Agave Americana — Connection between the flora of America and that of Asia — Metals and money — Laws and customs of the Aztecs — Domestic animals — Horses — Oxen — Stag-horns — Chinese and Japanese in the Hawaiian group and in Northwestern America — Shipwrecks upon the American coast — The voyages of the Japanese.

Chapter VII

The Arguments of Mm. Perez and Godron . . .104

Knowledge of America possessed by the Chinese — The Country of Women — Other travelers relate incredible stories— rKlaproth's argument — The account contained in the Japanese Encyclopcedia — Note denying that Fu-sang is Japan — Weakness of Klaproth's argument — Identity of names of cities in Asia and America — American languages — Resemblance of the Tartars to the Aborigines of America — Similitude of customs — A Buddhist mission to America in the fifth century — The Chinese able to measure distances, and possessed of the compass — The musk-oxen and bisons of America — Horses — Names of European animals misapplied to American animals — The "horse-deer" of America — Vines — The difficulty in identifying the fu-sang tree — Iron and copper in America and Japan.

CHAPTER VIII. D'EicnTHALS "Study" . . . . . .119

The Buddhistic origin of American civilization — The geographical relations between Northeastern Asia and Northwestern America — The memoirs of de Guignes and Klaproth — If Fu-sang was in Japan, there is no room for the " Country of Women " — The Japanese deny that Fu-sang was in their country — De Guignes's map — The ease of a voyage from Asia to

Xii CONTENTS.

PAGE

America — The warm current of the Pacific Ocean — The Aleutian Islands — Voyages of the natives — The civilization of New Mexico — A white population — Cophune — Buddhism — How it is modified and propagated — Its absorption of the doctrines of other religions — Its proselytism — Its religious communities — The route from Cophene to Fu-sang — A Buddhist sanctuary at Palenque — Description of Stephens — An image of Buddha — The lion-headed couch — The winged globe — The aureola about the figure — Decadence in art — The altars upon which flowers and fruits are offered — Reply to observations of M. Vivien de Saint-Martin — The two routes to Ta-han—Va^x, country located near the mouth of the Amoor River — Traces of Buddhism in that neighbourhood — Ease of voyage to the Aleutian islands — Klaproth's theory untenable — No other hypothesis remaining than that Fa-sang must be sought in America.

CHAPTER IX. COINOIDENOES NoTED BY HuMBOLDT, LOBSOHEID, AND PrESCOTT . 142

Extracts from the " Views of the Cordilleras " — Similarity of Asiatic and American civilizations — The struggles of the Brahmans and Buddhists — The divisions of the great cycles — The Mexicans designated the days of their months by the names of the zodiacal signs used in Eastern Asia — Cipactli and Capricornus — Table of resemblances — The tiger and monkey found only in southern countries — The Aztec migration from the north — Resemblance between certain Mexican and Tartarian words — The cutting-stones of the Aztecs — The sign Ollin and the foot-prints of Vishnu — Effects of a mixture of several nations — Changes resulting from changed circumstances and lapse of time —Analogies in religious customs — Analogy in the fables regarding the destructions of the universe — Lobscheid's reasons for thinking the American Indians to be one race with the Japanese and Eastern Asiatics — Similarity of customs — Tiles — Anchors — The route from Asia to America — Shipwrecks of fishing-boats — Head-dresses — Languages — Religion — Customs — Marriage solemnized by tying the garments together — Extracts from Prescott's " History of the Conquest of Mexico " — Analogies in traditions and religious usages — Disposal of the bodies of the dead — The analogies of science — The calendar — General conclusions.

CHAPTER X. Shorter Essays ....... 161

" Where was Fu-sang ? " — by the Rev. Nathan Brown, D. D. — Difficulties attending a decision— Horses — Grapes — Reason for thinking i^M-s«??/7 more distant than Japan — Length of the /* — Distances of the route — Difficulties attending Klaproth's theory — The military expeditions of the Japanese — The introduction of the Buddhist religion — The Hans — Gnat Han — Identification of the fu-sang tree with the bread-fruit tree — Conclusion — Remarks of the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg — The paper and books of the Mexicans and Central Americans — Civilization of New Mexico — Chinese boats — Animals — Mr. Lcland's "Fusang" — An earlier article — Who discovered America ? — J. Ilanlay's essay — The fu-sanf; tree identified with the maguey — Metals — Resemblance in religion and customs — Also in features — Language — Civilization on Pacific coast — Letter of Mr. Th. Simson — The Mexican aloe — The fu-sang tree — Japan — Letter of E. Bretschneider, M. D. — Accounts of Fu-sang by the Chinese poets — " The Kingdom of Women " — Verdict of Father Hyacinth — The distance — Horses and deer — The fusang tree — The t'ung tree — The pa-

CONTENTS. xiii

PAGE

per mulberry — Metals — " The Kingdom of Women " and Salt Lake City — Fu-sang not Japan — Ta-han in Siberia — Envoys from Fu-sang — Contradictory fancies — Mr. Leland's criticism — Letter of Pere Gaubil — Unreliability of Chinese texts — The peopling of Japan — Chinese knowledge of surrounding countries — Remarks of Humboldt — Letter of the Rt. Rev. Channing M. Williams — The Chinese " Classic of Mountains and Seas " — Fabulous stories — Translation of extracts therefrom — Remarks of M. Leon de Rosny — Passage from Asia to America — The distance — Character of the Esquimaux — An article from a newspaper of British Columbia — Discovery of Chinese coins in the bank of a creek — Evidence that they had been buried for a long time.

CHAPTER XL Remarks of Mm. Yivien de Saint-Maetin and Ltjcien Adam . 185

"An Old Story Set Afloat" — The route to Fu-sang — Identity of the Ainos with the Wcn-sldn — Ta-han near the mouths of the Amoor River — Route of Buddhist missionaries to the Amoor — Civilization of Buddhist origin — Pillars with Buddhist inscriptions — Necessity of accurate translation — Twenty thousand li signify only a very great distance — The fu-sang tree — Warlike habits — Lack of draught animals — Civilization of Mexico — Difficulty of the voyage — Conclusion — Remarks of M. Adam — Chinese acquainted with America — Ease of the journey — Travels of Buddhist monks — Points characteristic of American civilization — Ten-year cycle — The fu-sang tree — The t'ung tree — The hibiscus — The Dryanda cordata — The maguey, or agave — Zoological objections — Punishments — Slave children — Absurdities — Legend of Quetzalcoatl — He came from the East — The legend a myth — Colleges of priests — Practice of confession — The alleged figure of Buddha — The elephant's head — Lack of tusks — America for the Americans — Theory that Hwui Shan repeated the stories of Chi-

- nese sailors — Remarks of M. de Hellwald and Professor Joly.

CHAPTER XII. D'Heevey's Notes . . , , . . . 204

Bibliography — The name of the priest — The city oi King-cheu — Ta-han — Lieu-kuci, a peninsula — Earlier knowledge of Fu-sang — The construction of the dwellings — The lack of arms and armour — The punishment of criminals — The titles of the nobles — The title Tui-Iu found in Corea — The colours of the king's garments — The cycle of ten years — Peruvian history — The long catt'le-horns — The food prepared from milk — The red pears — Grapes — The worship of images of spirits of the dead — Its existence in China — Coph^ne — The " Kingdom of Women " — The legumes used as food — Wen-shin — The punishment of criminals — The name Tahan — The country identified with Kamtchatka — Two countries of that name — One lying north of China, and one lying east — Unwarlike nature of the people,

CHAPTER XIIL

D'Heevey's Appendix ....... 217

Diiference between Jloei SJiin^s story and other Chinese accounts — An earlier knowledge of Fu-sang — The poem named the Li-sao — The Shan-hai-king — The account of Tong-fang-so — The immense size of the country — The burning of books in China — The origin of the Chinese — The writer Kuan-mei — The arrival of Hoei Shin in 499 — The civil war then xiv CONTENTS.

PAGE

raging — The delay in obtaining an imperial audience — The " History of the Four Lords of the Liang Dynasty " — An envoy from Fu-sang — The presents offered by him — Yellow silk — A semi-transparent mirror — This envoy was IJoei Shi» — The stories told by Yu-kie — The silk found upon the fii-sang tree — The palace of the king — The Kingdom of Women — Serpent-husbands — The Smoking Mountain — The Black Valley — The animals of the country — The amusement of the courtiers — The poem Tong-king-fu — The route to Fu-sang — Fu-sang east of Japan — Lieu-kuci — The direction of the route.

CHAPTER XIV. Peofessob Williams's Argument ..... 230

" Notices of Fu-sang and other Countries lying East of China " — The origin of American tribes — The work of H. II. Bancroft— Mr. Leland's book — Ma Twan-lin — His " Antiquarian Researches " — Hwui-shin's story — Cophene — No later accounts of Fu-sang — The titles of the nobility — The ten-year cycle — Red pears — The fu-sang tree — No mention of pulque — Brocade — Fables — Account of the IShih Cliau Ki — The article of the Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys — Criticisms thereon — Fang-lai — The distance of Japan and Fu-sang — The name Fu-sang sometimes applied to Japan— Mention of the fu-sang tree in a Chinese geography — Expeditions sent to search for Fu-sang — Comparison with Swift's " Voyage to Lapvita " — The Kingdom of Women — Mention by Maundevile and Marco Polo of a land of Amazons — The country of Wan Shan — Tattooing — Its existence among the Esquimaux — Quicksilver — Two kingdoms of Ta Han — Lieu-kuei and the Lewchew Islands.

CHAPTER XV. Additional Information. — Nature of tue Chinese Language . 249

Fu-sang wood — NiS-yao-kiun-ti — The Warm Spring Valley — The Shin I King — The kingdom Hi-ho-koue — The astronomer Hi-ho — The story of a Corean — An island of women — Fung-lai — An expedition to explore it — The colonization of Japan — Lang Yuen — The Kwun-lun Mountains — A statue of a native of Fu-sang — A poem to his memory — The tree of stone — Varying translations — The peculiarities of the Chinese language — The brevity and conciseness of the written language — Its lack of clearness — The meaning of groups of characters, or compounds — Proper names — No punctuation — Difficulty of translating correctly — Preparation of M. Julien — Illustrations of mistakes.

CHAPTER XVI. The Description of Fu-sang. ..... 260

The Chinese authorities — Variations in the texts — The Chinese text — A literal translation — Parallel translations of eight authors — The date of Hwui ShSn's arrival in China — The location of Fu-sang — The fu-sang trees — The derivation of the name of the country — The leaves of the fu-sang tree — Its first sprouts — Red pears — Thread and cloth — Dwellings — Literary characters — Paper — Lack of arms — The two places of confinement — The difference between them — The pardon of criminals — Marriages of the prisoners — Slave-children — The punishment of a criminal of high rank — The great assembly — Suffocation in ashes — Punishment of his family — Titles of the king and nobles — JIusicians — The king's garments — The changing of their colour — A ten-year cycle — Long

CONTEXTS. XV

PAGE

cattle-horns — Their great size — Horse-carts, cattle-carts, and deer-carts — Domesticated deer — Koumiss — The red pears preserved throughout the year — To-p'u-T'Aoes — The lack of iron — Abundance of copper — Gold and silver not valued — Barter in their markets— rCourtship — The cabin of the suitor — The sweeping and watering of the path — The ceremonies of marriage — Mourning customs — The worship of images of the dead — The succession to the throne — A visit from a party of Buddhist missionaries — Their labours and success.

CHAPTER XVII. The Kingdom of "Women, the Land of " Marked Bodies," and

TQE Geeat Han Cocntet ..... 301

The accounts of all these countries derived from the same source — The Chinese text — The location of the Kingdom of Women — Its inhabitants — Their long locks — Their migrations — Birth of their young — Nursing ' the young — The age at which they walk — Their timidity — Their devotion to their mates — The salt-plant — Its peculiarities — A shipwreck — The women — A tribe whose language could not be understood — Men with puppies' heads — Their food, clothing, and dwellings — The land of " Marked Bodies " — Its location — Tattooing with three lines — The character of the people — Lack of fortifications — The king's residence — Water-silver — No money used — The Country of Great Han — Its location — Lack of weapons — Its people.

CHAPTER XVIIL The Length of the Li. — The name " Geeat Han " . . 328

The direction from Japan in which Fu-sang lay — Variations in standards of measure — The Chinese li about one third of a mile in length — The greater length of the Japanese li — Possibility of still another standard in Corea — Communication between Corea and Japan and between Corea and China — Chinese knowledge of the route to Japan derived from Corean sources — Fu-sang farther from " Great Han " than Japan is — Distances stated with at least approximate accuracy — The country of "Marked Bodies" identified as the Aleutian Islands — Allowances for changes and misunderstandings — Caesar's account of the inhabitants of Britain — Maundovile's repetition of the story — " Great Han " identified as Alaska — Land found in the regions indicated by Hwui Shan — Meaning of the character "Han" — Nature of the Chinese characters — The manner in which they are compounded of two parts — Some characters in which the meaning is affected by that of botli parts — Application of the character "Han" to a swirling stream and to the Milky Way — Hence its possible meaning of " dashing water " — Meaning of the name "Alaska" — The breakers of the Aleutian Islands — The population — A philological myth — The hypotheses upon one of which Hwui Shan's story must be explained — The explanation should be consistent.

CHAPTER XIX. The Customs of the Land of "Marked Bodies," and of Great

Han 343

Necessity of examining the account in detail — The resemblance of the people of the two countries — Their customs — Their languages — The marks upon their bodies — Tattooing with three lines — Existence of the custom xvi CONTENTS.