A history of the church : from the earliest ages to the reformation

Front matter

Pass b Ty 162 .

Book L_X1^ / tlar'per^s Stereotype Edition.

THE EARLIEST AGES

Part I

Chapter!. — The Propagation of Christianity. A.D. 60 The Church of Jerusalem. James the Just its

first President or Bishop 29

65 Secession of the Christian Church to Pella 30

No tabularies or public acts preserved by the

primitive Christians 30

134 Foundation of iElia Capitolina by Adrian 30

40 Church of Antioch, founded by St. Paul and

Barnabas 31

There the converts first assumed the name of Christian 31

107 Ignatius, the second Bishop, suffered martyrdom in the persecution of Trajan 31 The pretended correspondence between Jesus Christ and Abgarus, Prince of Edessa, in Mesopotamia, proves the early introduction of the faith into that country 31 The Church of Ephesus, founded by St. Paul, and governed by St. John 31 166 The Church of Smyrna governed by Polycarp, till his martyrdom under Marcus Antoninus 32 The Churches of Sardis and Hierapolls. MelitoandPapias. Conversion of Bithynia 32 107 The testimony of Pliny the Younger, contained

in his Epistle to Trajan 33

The difficulty of establishing the Church at Athens may be ascribed to the speculative character of the people 34

D5 Greater facility in the conversion of the Corinthians. The dissensions of the converts were censured by St. Clement, Bishop of Rome 34

165 The seven Catholic Epistles of the Bishop Dio-

nysius 35

64 The persecution at Rome by Nero is related by Tacitus, with little humanity. St. Peter and St. Paul are believed to have su^fFered on that occasion. Testimony to the numerical importance of the Converts 35 196 Victor, Bishop of Rome, addressed an order to the Asiatic Bishops respecting the celebration of Easter, which they refused to obey. A Schism was the consequence 36 177 A persecution in Gaul by Marcus Antoninus 37 Irenaus was subsequently Bishop of Lyons 37 Some reasons why the Church of Alexandria

was probably numerous at an early period 37

St. Mark, the first Bishop 37

134 Testimony of the Emperor Adrian, respecting

the religious character of the Alexandrians 37 Establishment there of the Catechetical School, and subsequent labors of Panteenus, Clemens, and Origen 38

Chapter II. — On the J\''iimhers, Discipline, Doctrine, and Morality of the Primitive Church. SCO The gi-eat extent over which Christianity was

spread before the end of the second century 38

The earliest converts were chiefly of the middle or lower classes ; the cause of their obscurity 39

The great facility of intercourse throughout the Roman Empire, the zeal of the missionaries, &c. • 39

On the mkacxilous powers claimed by the

I A. D. Paga

Church, and the period to which they were most probably confined 4ft

They appear to have ceased with the immediate successors of the Apostles 40

The episcopal government generally established after the death of the Apostles ... A perpetual succession of Bishops traced up to that time in most- of the Eastern Churches and in Rome 41,42

On the temporary ministry of the prophets 42

On the subordinate office of deacon, and the extent of the spiritual duties assigned to it 42

Very early origin of the distinction between clergy and laity, established by the Act of Ordination 42

The Bishop co-operated with the Council of Presbyters in the government of his Church, and was elected by the whole body of the clergy and people 43

Ib^etseq. Origin and composition of the first provincial assemldies or synods j they rose in Greece 43

From these synods proceeded the title and dignity of the Metropolitan, and the general aggrandizement of the episcopal order 44

Excommunication the oldest weapon of the Church 44

Community of property had not universal prevalence 45

The primitive institution of the Lord's day 45

The two most ancient festivals were those of the resurrection and of the descent of the Holy Spirit - 45

The only public fast on the day of the crucifixion 45

The variety of early creeds, and primitive use of the Apostles' creed. The sacraments of Baptism and the Eucharist 45

— Nature and use of the Agapae, or feasts of

Charity 46

Exemplary morality of the early Christians, proved from the writings of St. Clement, Origen, the younger Pliny, Bardesanes, Lucian, and Justin Martyr 47-49

, Charity the corner stone of the moral edifipe 47-49

Chapter III. — Progress of Christianity from 200 till Constantine^ s Accession

The first appearances of corruption in the Church necessarily proceeded from the increased numbers and more varied character of the converts 49

313 Before the time of Constantine, Christianity was deeply rooted in all the eastern provinces of the ilouuin empire it had also spread among the northern and western nations 50

Some vague pretensions of Rome advanced and resisted 50

251 The Roman Synod against Novatian was attended by sixty Bishops 50

203 Origen was made President of the Catechetical School, and remained so for nearly th'rty years. His great diligence and erroneous principles in the interpretation of Scripture. He was successful in converting some Arabian Heretics 51

192 Tertuliian was made Presbyter of the Church

of Cartilage. He fell into Montanism about . seven years afterwards. He was of a violent, inconsistent, and powerful character 52

250 Cyprian was raised to the See of Carthage 52

The dignity of the Metropolitans was exalted, and the general distinction between Bishops and Presbyters widened during the third century. Cyprian instrumentalin this 52,53

Some inferior classes in the ministry were instituted ; the distinction between the faithful and the Catechumens became prevalent in this age; and some mistaken notions were encouraged respecting the nature of baptism, as well as of the Eucharist 53,54

The sign of the Cross was employed in the office of exorcism 53,54

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

The connexion of religion with philosophy occasioned the origin of pious frauds and forgeries 54

The sect of the Eclectics, founded by Ammonias Saccas, tended to the injury and corruption of Christianity. His successor, Plotinus, made a compromise with his religion 55

The Millennarian opinions prevalent in the early Church should probably be ascribed to the error of Papias 56

Chapter IV.- -Persecutions of several Roman Emperors

The theory of pure Polytheism permits an unlimited reception of divinities, and, as such, is tolerant ; but the Polytheism of Rome was apolitical engine ; the laws were rigid in excluding foreign Gods ; and the practice of the Republic was continued in the empire 57,58

The number of Ten Persecutions became popular after the fifth century. The name of persecution should be confined to four or five 5S §4 Whether the persecution of Nero was general or con.fined to Rome, and whether his laws against the Christians were more than an application to them of the standing statutes of the empire &9,60

94 or 95 The grandsons of St. Jude were brought

before Domitian, and dismissed in security 60 The Rescript of Trajan enjoined death as the punishment of aconvicted Christian; forbidding, however, inquisition 60

138 — 161 Tbe Christians suffered, during the reign of Antoninus Pins, through popular violence, rather than legal oppression 61

163—181 The first systematic persecution was that

of Marcus Antoninus, and it lasted during . his whole reign. He encouraged inquiry after the suspected and inflicted every punishment'. He censured the enthusiasm of the martyrs, yet not himself free from the charge ©f superstition, though adorned by many virtues 61,62

202—211 The Edict of Severus against the Christians remained in force j it was most destructive in Egypt 62^

250 Decius pretended to constrain all his subjects to return to the religion of their ancestors ; many perished ; and many fell away from the faith 63

258 Cyprian suffered martyrdom in the reign of

Valerian, on his refusal to sacrifice 64

303 The teachers of philosophy were instrumental in bringing Diocletian to begin his persecution. It was continued for ten years, with a severity comprehending every form of oppression ; and ceased not till the accession of Constantine 64

313 The early unpopularity of the Christians is accounted for by ancestral prejudices, the fame of peculiar sanctity, converting zeal, Jewish hostility, and various calumnies ; the exclusive character of the religion, aversion for idolatry, &:c. 65,66

The Church learned from her sufferings the lesson of persecution, which she practised in after ages 67

Cbntumatjy the pretext for these Pagan inflictions 63 Various false notions respectin-g the characters and ends of the emperors v/ho persecuted and who tolerated 68 These persecutions were not, upon the whole, unfavorable to the progress of religion 69'

\Fh'apter V. — On the Heresies of the First Tliree Centuries.

The original meaning of the word heresy is choice; it passed from philosophy into religion ; and various senses, no longer indifferent, were then attached to it 69

The earliest fathers strongly opposed erroneous opinions ; yet permitted no personal severities 70

The names of dissent were in no age more numerous than the earliest — proving the numbers of the early converts 71

Some errors probably older than. the apostolic preaching 71

The Church suffered from the absurd opinions of some of the heretics who were confounded with it 71

Mosheim distinguishes the early heretics into three classes 72

A different view is ta^a by Dr. Burton,, whotraces all the most ancient heresies to the Gnostic philosophy - 73

The division of heresies here given is rather in reference to their subject than their supposed origin 73

The vain inquiry respecting the origin of evil ; it is ascribed to matter : hence the eternity of matter, and supposition of an evil principle 73 The association of this philosophy with Christianity occasioned many gross errors, as the rejection of the Old Testament as the work of the evil spirit, and the denial of the humanity of Christ ; these were held by the Gnostics 73

Simon Magus was classed among these ; and bis disciples are thought to have been very numerous at Rome 74

120-1 Saturninus introduced the opinions into the Asiatic, Rasilides into the Egyptian, School; and Carpocrates ami Valentin us further extended or refined them. Cerdo and Marcion introduced them into Rome 74

172 Tatian, disciple of Justin Martyr, founded on them the heresy of the Encratites, who professed meditation and bodily austerities 74 The Docetffi (Phantastics) were of very early origin ; they had a system of emanations from the Divinity, caljed .^ons, of which Christ was one ; while Jesus was the mere man, into whom the ^on descended. They disbelieved, in consequence, the atonement 75 72 The Ebionites, who denied the divinity of Christ, were of very early origin ; they were chiefly confined to the Jewish converts, and were disclaimed by the Church 75,76

200 Theodotus was expelled from the Church of Rome, while Victor was bishop, for assertiag the mere humanity of Christ 76

269 Paul of Samosata was deposed, and removed

by Aurelian 76

The creed of Tertullian in his answer to Praxeas 76

250 Sabellius denied the distinct personality of the second and third persons, considering them as energies, or portions of the first: hence his followers were called Patripassians 77

170' Montanus began to prophesy in Phrygia, in company with Maximilla and Priscill'a. Tertullian became a convert and advocate 78

257 A controversy arose about the baptism of heretics, in which Stephen, Bishop of Rome, displayed some violence 78

— The Novatians,^ the earliest ecclesiastical re-

formers, were condemned by the Church ; they subsisted till the fifth century 79

Observations on the character of the early heresies, and the manner in which they were opposed by churclircen 79

The degree of respect due to the early Fathers 79' On the epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, the epistles of Igiiatius, and that of Polycarp 80

140 The two Apologies of Justin Martyr and his

dialogue with the Jew Trypho 81

178 Irenffius was made Bishop of Lyons. He wrote

five books "Against Heresies " 81,82

PART IL

312" An inquiry into the miracle of the luminous

cross ; it rests on very insufficient evidence 82';83 313 Publication of the edict of Milan — an edict of

universal toleration 83

The suspicions of Constantine's sincerity are founded on the inadequacy of his morality to his profession ; and are counteracted by many particulars of his conduct and character 83

Before Constantine, neither the authority of synods or bishops, nor the property of the Church, was recognised by law. Here is ths earliest vestige of distinction between spiritual and temporal power 85"

In what the strength of the Antenicene Church consisted. That strengtli, as well as the peculiar qualities of Christians, influenced Constantine to legalize Christianity 86

— He received the Church into strict alliance

with the State; investing the Crown with the highest ecclesiastical authority, with great mutual advantage 85

321 The internal administration of the Church remained in the hands of the Prelates. Permission was granted to bequeath property to the Church ; also exemption from civil offices, and independent jurisdictiou '87

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A. D. Page A. D.

The Emperor assumed the control of the external administration ; the right of calling general councils, &;c. 88

This right was the creation of a new power, not an usurpation on the Church 88

-Constantinejin the ecclesiastical, followed the civil, divisions of the empire. To the three leading prelates of Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria, he added the Patriarch of Constantinople 89

A thousand Bishops administered the Eastern, and eight hundred the Western, Church 89

The establishment of the Church was, upon the whole, favorable to the concord of Christians. The persecutions which have followed it were not its necessary consequence 89

Various sources of the Romish corruptions 90

J\rote. On the historical respectability of Eusebios ; to what his professions are confined, and how far he fulfils them 90-91

Chapter VII. — On the Arian Controversy.

Those metaphysical controversies, which exercised only the wit of philosophers, engaged the passions of Christians. They were prolonged by the neglect of Scripture, and inflamed by the national characteristics of the disputants 92

Constantino presently published laws against various heretics 93

319 Arius promulgated his opinions at Alexandria, and had many followers in Asia and Egypt. He was excommunicated by Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria 93

325 Constantino reluctantly convoked the Council

of Nice 94

The variety of motives by which its members were profeably influenced. The dissensions of the Bishops, who finally pronounced the Son consubstantial with the Father 94

Gibbon's account examined (note) 95

Temporal penalties were inflicted on the contuiHacious, but revoked, as soon as their inefficacy was discovered 96

The character of Arius, according to Epiphanius 96 336 Constantius encouraged Arianisra in the East 96

326 Athanasius succeeded Alexander in the See of

Alexandria. He was degraded ; restored ; and again degraded j and passed his exile at Rome 97

S49 He was again restored to his throne ; and, is

seven years, deposed for the third time 98

The difficulty with which Constantius accomplished his deposition, proves the diminution of the imperial despotism, through the rise of the Church 98

362 Athanasius was again restored, on the death of Constantius, and, after eleven years, died in his See 98

Difference among the Arians as to the likeness between the two persons ; leading to divisions 98

The Semiarians, Honaoiousians, Anomoians, or Eunomians

358-9 Synods of Ancyra and Seleucia

360 The Council of Rimini established Arianism (or rather Semiarianism) in the West

S70 Yalens persecuted the Catholics throughout the East

383 Theodosius the Great generally restored the Catholic belief

381 The Council General of Constantinople established the divinity of the Third Person

- - Damasus, at Rome, and Ambrose, at Milan, zealously defended the Consubstantialist doctrine

870 triphilas converted the Goths to Arianism ; other barbarians subsequently adopted the same opinion ; and in the fifth century it again became general in the West

527 et seq. Justinian sustained the Catholics

589 The Council of Toledo extirpated Arianism from Spain ; and the Lombards soon afterwards embraced the Catholic doctrine The Arians may have been free from some of the superstitious corruptions of the Catholics ; but the merit of tolerance cannot be ascribed to either party JVote on Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and other ecclesiastical writers 103-4

Page 105

Chapter VIII. — The Decline and Fall of Paganism,

The overthrow of Paganism contemporary with the Arian dissenaions 104

321 Constantine published an edict in favor of

divination 333 He began to attack the temples and idols, and generally condemned the rights of Paganism. Constantius, the Arian, followed his example 105 The supposed motives of Julian, and his character, as compared to that of Marcus Antoninus 106 The policy of Constantine contrasted with that

of Julian 105

The successive penalties and disabilities by which Julian attacked the Christians, and the great knowledge which he showed of the theory of persecution 107

His endeavors to reform Paganism were directed to three points ; in a great measure borrowed from the ecclesiastical system of the Christians 107

353 He made his celebrated attempt to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. The historical facts of this attempt are founded on the combined evidence of four contemporary authors, one of whom, Ammianus JJarcellinus, was a Pagan 108 The question whether the phEenomenon which interrupted the w*ork was natural or miraculous 108 A recent explanation of it is attended v/ith some difficulties, and still leaves room for uncertainty 109 Valentinian I. practised universal toleration IW 392 Theodosius published his famous edict against polytheism. It was effectual in diminishing the numbers of the Pagans, and confining them chiefly to the villages 3 whence the name 110 The religion may be considered as extinct from

this time 111

Some heathen superstitions were communicated to Christianity. The veneration for martyrs encouraged by the Fathers, and carried to excess by the people 111

404 Honorius abolished the gladiatorial games 112

388 Christianity was established by the Roman

Senate 113

J\rote on the writings of Julian, Ammianus Marcellinus, and Zosimus. Julian's hatred of Christianity was not the contempt of a philos- 1, opher, but the passion of a rival ; a passage m the Misopogon proves his own superstitiousness or hypocrisy ; his charitable edicts were derived from the Christian practices 113-14-15

Chapter IX. — J^owt the Fall of Paganism to the Death of Justinian.

370 — 600 The various barbarian tribes were cohverted, some before, some after, their invasion of the empire

496 The probable account and consequences of the conversion of Clovis. The first connexion between France and Rome The natural causes which facilitated the conversion of the barbarians ; their respect for the grandeur of the empire, for the sacerdotal character, for the imposing ceremonies of the Church 116-17

The opinion of Mosheim as to the probability of supernatural interposition in aid of this work The internal condition of the Church was still further corrupted by the admixture of anotlier superstition

427 Symeon the Stylite, a Syrian monk, commenced his method of penitential devotion, and obtained the admiration of the people and the respect of the Emperors 118-19

440 Leo the Great was raised to the See of Rome ; zealous in the repression of error both in tke East and West And in the aggrandizement of the Roman See Leo encouraged, or instituted, the practice of private confession, — so useful to sacerdotal power

451 The substance of the 29th canon of the Council of Chalcedon respecting the relative rank of the Sees of Rome and Constantinople 120-1

527 Justinian ascended the throne, and held it for nearly forty years. He assailed various heretics, Arians, Nestorians, Eutychians ; received from the fifth General Council the title of 'Most Christian,' and died in the heresy of the Incorruptibles, or Phantastics On the system of persecution adopted by the Christian Emperors. Theadosius II. embodied the various barbarous edicts in the Theodosian Code, and instituted inquisitions for ^ tlie detection of lieresy iia

131-2

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A. D, I'age

The decline of the Roman literature was previous to any influence of the Christian religion, and chiefly caused by despolism 122-3

350 — 430 Many eminent Christian writers flourished, and were the best of that age 122-3 398 The Council of Carthage prohibited the study of secular books by Bishops ; <:i-eat ignorance followed, though not in consequence of this decree 124 The ' Seven Liberal Arts,' ' Books of xMartyrs,' ' Lives of Saints,' &:c. 124 529 Justinian published the edict which closed the

School of x\thens 125

Religion in its purity had been connected with

philosophy in its corruption and abuse 125

The effect of Justinian's edict has probably

been much exaggerated 125

The moral delinquences of the clergy were not

so great as some have represented them 126

The miseries of the age were ascribed by many to the overthrow of the idols ; and Augustine combats this notion in his ' City of God ' 126-7 JVute on certain ecclesiastical writers 127

S10,&c. The ' Divine Institutions,' and ' Deaths of

the Persecutors,' the works of Lactantius 127

362,&;c. Gregory Nazianzen wrote some Discourses against the Emperor Julian ; lie exalts in lofty language the authority of the Church 128 374 Ambrose raised by the people to the See of Milan ; he was not then baptized. In 390 he imposed an act of humiliation on Theodosius the Great 128

Chrysostom combined great eloquence, zeal, and piety, with some extravagance ; lie died in exile on Mount Taurus. His opinions on the Eucharist, on Grace and Original Sin, and on Confession, have been the occasion of much controversy 130-31

390 Jerome, in his convent at Bethlehem, exalted monastic excellence, and attacked the reformers and heretics, Jovinian, Vigilantius, Pelagius, &c. Ilis Latin translation of the Old Testament less favorably received at the time than his polemical philippics 131-2

Chapter X.—From the Death of Justinian, to that of Charlemagne, 567 — 814.

596 St. Austin, with forty Benedictines, introduced Christianity into Britain. His miraculous claims may be rejected ; but the work was accomplished without violence. Gregory tlie Great was Bishop of Rome 133-4

Some of the original Christians remaining in Wales retained the Eastern error as to the celebration of Easter 133-4

715—723 Winfred (Boniface), an Englishman, called the Apostle of Germany. He was raised to the see of Mayence, and (755) murdered by the Frieselanders " 134-5

622—732 The Mahometans conquered Bersia, Syria, Egypt, (through tlie co-operation of the Jacobites) the northern parts of Africa, and Spain. They invaded France, and were defeated by Charles Martel 135-6

772 Charlemagne converted the Saxons by the sword ; and had reason to complain of their contumacy 137

590—604 Gregory the Great was raised to the Roman See ; he possessed some good and great qualities, and applied himself to reform some abuses. He was charitable, zealous for the propagation of Christianity, and the unity of the Church 138-9

The charge against him of having burned the Palatine Library is probably unfounded 139

— He encouraged the use, and prohibited the

worship, of images 139

He irjciilcated purgatory, and pilgrimage to

holy places 140

His extravagant letter to the Empress Constantina on the bodies of the Saints and the sanctity of their relics 140-1

^ Worship was still celebrated by every nation

in its own language " 141

Gregory instituted the canon of the Mass, and added splendor to the ceremonies of the Church . 14]

588 The title of CEcumenic was conferred by the Emperor Maurice upon the Patriarch of Constantinople. Gregory velienientlv disputed the propriety of the title, without "claiming it for himself 142

Gregory first claimed the power of the Keys for the successor of St. Peter, rather than the I

body of the Bishops 142

The use of papal envoys and advocates, and i the practice of appeal to Rome, became more common during the pontificate of Gregory 143 — Of his claim to the title of Great, and the mischief occasioned by the superstitions encouraged by him 143 604 — 770 No character of ecclesiastical eminence from Gregory to Charlemagne. But many clianges were silently introduced into the Western Church, through the barbarian conquests. The East remained unaltered 144 The lower orders of tiie clergy were greatly debased in the West. The office of priesthood was commonly conferred on the serfs of the Church 145 A number of laymen were connected with the

Church by the giving of the tonsure 145

The principle of the Unity of the Church, now useful in associating the barbarians, prepared the way for the papal despotism. On some Councils held in Spain 145

The process by which the Popes usurped the

authority of the Metropolitans 146

Princes usurped the appointment to vacant Sees, with great detriment to the Church, in those ages 147

The power and corruption of the episcopal order. The military character commonly assumed 147 635 Pope Martin was carried away to Constantinopie, and died in exile in the Chersonesus 148 754-5 Pope Zachary, having contributed to raise Pepin to the throne of France, was rewarded by the donation of the Exarchate of Ravenna 148-9 800 Charlemagne was proclaimed Emperor of the West. He exerted great munificence towards the Church ; still, however, retaining Rome as a part of the empire. His object was to civilize his subjects by means of the clergy 149 789 The Councils of Aix-la-Chapelle and (794) Frankfort assembled for the reformation of the clergy 150

Chapter XI. — On the Dissensions of the Church from Constantine to Charlemagne.

311 The principal cause of the schism of the Donatists was a disrespect shown to the Numidian Bishops. The principle which it pleaded was the invalidity of the ministry of the Traditors 152

Constantine interfered, by synods, first at Rome, then at Aries ; lastly, by personal investigation. He decided against the Donatists, and used the secular power 152

But he presently repealed the laws against them. They were pex-secuted by Constans ; restored by Julian ; they then flourished, and quarrelled. Presently Augustin assailed them ; and they were condemned by the Council of Carthage, and persecuted. Great ravages were committed by the Circumcellions 153

354 — 430 Augustin, a Numidian, embraced the Manichean opinions. He returned to the Church 3 was made Bishop of Hippo ; reformed the abuse of the Agapae ; and became celebrated by his Catholic zeal, and his writings 154-5

Erasmus had drawn a parallel between Augustin and Jerome 155 Some particulars relating to his private life 156 380 Prisciilian was condemned on the charge of Maniclieism by the Council of Saragossa, and executed at Treves, by Maximus, four years afterwards. He is generally considered as the first martyr to religious dissent. It ig disputed what his opinions were 156-7 390 Jovinian was condemned by a Council held by Ambrose, at Milan, and banished by the emperor. He wrote against celibacy, and religious seclusion 158 405 Vigilantius wrote against the temples of martyrs, prodigies, vigils, prayers to saints, fasting, &:c. 159 412 The opinions of Celestinus were condemned by a Council at Carthage. Augustin then accused Pelagius before two Councils, in Syria ; but he was acquitted in both. Zosimus, Bishop of Rome, at first declared in his favor. But an imperial edict was obtained against the heresy, &c. 159-60-61 What is the substance of the Pelagian opinions ; and what seem to have been the real sentiments of Augustin 161 428 The Semipelagian doctrines began to spread in France, and seem to have had earlier prevalence in the East ; but they were equal

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

A. D. Pa

ly condemned by the Church of Rome 1(

The doctrine of the 'One Incarnate Nature' was first avowed in Egypt by Apollinaris, Bishop of Laodicea, the friend of Athanasius ; but condemned in Asia and Syria 162

428 Nestorius was raised to the See of Constantinople. He maintained that the Virgin Mary should be called the ' Mother of Christ,' or even ' Mother of Man j' not ' Mother of God.' Cyril of Alexandria opposed him 163-4

431 He was condemned by the General Council of Ephesus, and died in the deserts of Upper Egypt. But his opinions spread throughout Asia 164

The doctrine of the Nestorians, according to the Councils of Seleucia 164

449 The Monophysite opinions of Eutyches were confirmed in a Council held at Ephesus ; but rejected by that of Chalcedon (451), which established the doctrine of Christ in one person and two natures 165

482 Zeno published his Henoticon, or edict of Union 166

629 Heraclius proposed the question of the single or double will of Christ ; and the latter was established by the sixth General Council at Constantinople, held in 680 166

Some remarks favorable to the parties engaged in these cor^troversies 166

726 Leo the Isaurian attacked the worship of images, established in the East before 600 167 And was resisted both in tlie East, and in Italy, and by Gregory II. 168

754 An assembly near Constantinople decreed the destruction of images (hence the name Iconoclasts) ; but Irene restored them by the General Council of Nice, in 787 ; the seventh, and last, of the Greek Church. Some remarks on those Councils 168-69 Tlie Iconoclast heresy was renewed by some following emperors ; but finally repressed (842) by the Empress Theodora 170

754 John Damascenus, the last of the Greek Fathers 171

— The miracles in this contest were chiefly claimed by the friends of the idols, who, in the East, were for the most part the monks and lower people. In the West, the Papal Chair zealously supported the same cause 171

794 But the Council of Francfort, under Charlemagne, was much more moderate 171-2

Chapter XII. — On the Schism between the Greek and Latin Churches.

Some political causes which accelerated the division between the Churches 172-3

320 — 451 The extent and authority of the See of Constantinople increased widely, and its jurisdiction was confirmed by the Council of Chalcedon, in spite of the Legates of Leo the Great 172-3

588 After continued disputes, John the Faster assumed the title of Universal Patriarch, which led to fresh quarrels. The internal dissensions of the Greek Church always gave Rome an influence in its aff'airs 173-4