Furniture designing and draughting

Preface

THIS book for the use of students, architects antl oiIkts wlu) at times find it desirable to make drawings for furniture, has been prepared from material collected during an experience of some years as a designer of furniture for several of the most important furniture-makers in New York City.

It is assumed that a knowledge of how projection and perspective drawings are made has been obtained, and that the general principles of design and ornamental forms are familiar to the reader. It describes methods of construction as far as they relate to draughtsman's work, but stops there, for it is not the intention to make this an instruction book for those who wish to become cabinet-makers. The " man at the bench " may, however, find the parts relating to designing of interest even though the practical details are already known, and seem to him incomplete because many mechanical matters that he realizes are necessary in making furniture are not mentioned.

Construction details that have been omitted were not thought essential to the draughtsman, and if known by him would be of no service in making the design or working drawing, as they would not appear on either.

A. C. N.

New York City, 1900.

Contents

Page.

Preface 3

Chapter I

Definitions, Classification. Proportion 9

CHAPTER n.

Tables, Turnings, Cross Veneering 15

CHAPTER HI.

Chairs, Seats, Sofas, Upholstery 36

CHAPTER IV.

Casework, Panelling, Bedsteads 57

CHAPTER V.

The Drawer 81

CHAPTER VI.

Ornamentation of Furniture 86

CHAPTER VII.

Theories of Design, Rendering 94

LIST OF PLATES

Frontispiece. Louis XVI. Cliair.

I. The Construction of a Table.

II. Chair and Table Legs.

III. French Chair Leg.

IV. Drop Leaf Tables.

V. Pivoted Top Tables.

VI. Extension Tables.

VII. Chairs. Front and Side Elevations.

VIII. Arm Chairs. Seat Plans. Stretchers.

IX. Outline of Chair Backs.

X. Composition of Chair Backs.

XI. Construction and Upholstery of Chairs.

XII. Composition and Proportion.

XIII. Case Construction.

XIV. Mouldings and Panels.

XV. Hanging Doors and Lids.

XVI. The Drawer.

XVII. Ornamental Chair Backs.

XVIII. Louis XV. Table.

XIX. Louis XVI. Cabinet.

XX. XV. Century Cabinet.

XXI. Louis XV. Arm Chair.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

Page.

Bedstead framing 79

Card table hinge 31

Effect of mouldings 62

Joints 65

Meeting stiles for hinged doors 75

Meeting stiles for sliding doors 75

Pin hinge 72

Secretary hinge 76

Turnings 21

Index

Arm chairs, Plans of, 46.

Applique metal work, 91.

Bandy legs, 16.

Brackets, supporting leaves, 28.

Banister back chair, 45.

Bearer, 82.

Bedstead, 78.

Bookcase, 77.

Burnt ornament, 92.

Built-up table top, 24.

Butt joint, 66.

Cane seats, 56.

Case work, proportion, composition, .57.

Case work, construction, 65.

Classification, 9, 10.

Castors, 47.

Chair, plan of arm 46; arms 48; banister back, 45; carved back. .S8; cane seat, 56; construction, 45; dimensions, 46; elementary forms, 37; four backed, 46; for use at table, 48; Hepplewhite, 49; parts of 37; rush seat, 5.'i; seat dimensions, 47, 48; stretchers, 46; scissor pattern, 38; slope of back, 49; upholstered, 49; Windsor, 38: wood seat, 45.

Cover, for upholstery, 55.

Cross veneering, 24.

Composition of case work, 57.

Construction of bedsteads, 79; drawers, •SI; case work, 65; chairs, 45; tables. 23.

Draw table, 51.

Drawer, hanging, 82; slides, 85; triangular, 85; depth of, 81; pivoted, 85; for music cabinets, 83; construction, 81; runners, 82.

Desk lids, 76

Dimensions of bedsteads, 80; ease work,

78; chairs. 56; component parts, 11;

sofas, 50; tables, 23.

Disposition of ornament, 93.

Doors, sliding, 75; swinging, 72.

Dove tail, 67.

Dowel joint, 24, 66.

Drop leaves, 27.

Dust panel, ,S2.

Extension table, 31.

French bandy legs, 16.

First things considered, 11.

Finger joint, 28.

Four-backed chair, etc., 4<!.

Furniture, what is good, 12: plan, 100.

Glazing, 71.

Hepplewhite chair, 34, 49.

Hinging, 71.

Joints, 66; knuckle, 28; finger, 28; mitre, 66; mortise and tenon, 67; rule. 27.

Leaves, for table, 27.

Lining-up, 24.

Marquetry, 92.

Mediums, for sketching, 63.

Meeting stiles, 72.

Mirrors, 71.

Mortise and tenon, 67.

Mouldings, 61; effect of, t>2; ornamentation, 65.

Music cabinets, 85.

Ornament, 93; painted, 92.

Over-stuffed work. 53.

Originality, 94.

Ormolu, 91.

Plan, furniture, lOd; chair seat. 3S.

Panels, 67.

Painted ornament, 92.

Perforated carving, 88.

Pivot hinge, 72; top table. 28.

Pivoted drawer, 85.

Rush seat chairs, 55.

Rule joint. 22.

Runners, 82.

Scale of sketches, 9(i.

Stability, of tables, 22.

Seats, plans of. 38; wood, 45.

Sketch, purpose of, 95; scale, 96; mediums, 99.

Styles, 94.

Spread, of table feet. 22.

Stretchers, chairs, 46; table, 21.

Shelving, 77.

Slides, for extension tables, 32; drawers. 88.

Sliding doors, 75.

Shield-back, 38.

Stiles, meeting, 72.

Scissor chair, 38.

Sofas, 56.

Stub tenon. 67.

Stumbling block, 11.

Tables, construction of, 23; draw, 33; definition of, 15; extension. 31; frame of, 22; height, 22; leaves, 27; logs, 16; overhang. 22; parts of, 15; spread of feet, 22; stability of. 22; tops, built-up, 24.

Tracings paper, use of, 96.

Turnings. 21.

Tufting, 54.

Upholstery, 49; block. 53.

Varnishing, 86.

Veneers, 91 ; built-up, 24.

Vernis Martin, 92.

Wood, qualities of, Ki; seat, 45.

Windsor chair, 3*^.

Wrought iron, 91.

FURNITURE.

CHAPTER T Definitions, Classification, Etc.

FURNITURE designing is the art of delineating and ornamenting household effects so they l)tconie objects of beauty and pleasure as well as service. Furniture designing means giving thought and study to the proposed plan ; the seeking for the best forms, sizes, proportions, materials, and workmanship to produce what is required. It may be necessary to make several attempts before success is attained, but the result will be the best individual effort. In this sense designed furniture should be useful, handsome, and well made of properly selected material used in an attractive way. Furniture may be made without any special study or thought, the result being mechanical, careless, and lacking in artistic qualities. A mechanic may make something that is serviceable but extremely ugly, and without design. If, however, he has the personal quality that causes him to take pride in the appearance of his work combined with the knowledge of how to proceed to obtain the beautiful he will become a designer, for he will put his mind to his work, giving it a personality, independent of chance effects.

Furniture made without this thought and study brings to the mind at once the feeling that something is wanting. Either the lines indicate an indecision in the mind of the maker, or the methods employed in its construction show no desire to produce the best effect with the material.

Furniture can be divided into three classes, according to use.

First, DOMESTIC FURNITURE, including that for dwellings

of every rank.

]0 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION. ETC.

Second, CIVIL FURNITURE, that for 'public buildings and places of business.

Third, ECCLESIASTICAL FURNITURE, for churches.

Furniture may also be divided into two groups named for the methods of construction. The first, Framezvork, includes seats, tables, mirrors, screens, etc.. and all articles not boxed in. The second, Caseivork, includes chests, bureaus, sideboards, desks, etc., and all articles which are cased (boxed) in by panel work or its equivalent.

The materials from which furniture is usually made are wood, metal and stone. The use of metal and stone need not be considered here, because these materials are employed for extraordinary furniture of a more or less fixed architectural character not strictly within the general accepted meaning of the word. The natural material is wood, which has many qualities to recommend it. It is abundant, easily obtained, and easily prepared in convenient form for use. It is of light weight so that objects made from it are not heavy enough to become inconvenient, and it is sufficiently strong to serve all practical purposes.

The ease with which it is worked into the forms desired, and the facility with which necessary repairs may be made are recommendations in itS' favor. In addition to these advantages, which may be called technical, there are the aesthetic and physical reasons why wood is superior to other materials. It is agreeable to the eye in its natural state, which furnishes a large variety of colors, but if these do not meet the requirements stains of any shade can be applied with ease. It also assumes, under proper conditions, a polish of a greater or less degree. There are no objectionable sensations experienced when it is touched by the hand, as it is not hard or harsh, nor is the temperature unpleasant.

The kind of wood used may have an influence on the character of the design. Some woods are of a coarse, open grain hardly adapted to small details or fine work. Such woods are oak and ash. They are well suited to large, heavy articles for severe usage, and of broadly executed designs. Woods like mahogany, satinwood and maple are of a fine, close grain and admit of a more delicate treatment. Mouldings and carving in these woods may be smaller in detail than seems l)roper for those of a coarser grain. This feeling is quite well recognized by everyone, so that furniture for halls, libraries, etc., is often of the coarse woods, reserving those of finer grain for the living-room, parlors and bedrooms.

FIRST THINGS CONS WERT. P. n

The character of the wood need not affect the quaHty of the design, as each variety may receive equal aesthetic treatment. The bold, coarse work may have just as nuich feeling- expressed in the design as the more delicate. It is not the material used that is the most iml^ortant consideration, but the form and proportion of the article, and the harmony of the design with the surroundings. It is the study of these conditions that gives opportunity for the designer to display his skill. He asks himself: Shall the article be .'square or oblong? Shall it he high or low in proportion to the width? Or if, as frequently is the case, one or two dimensions are given, what will be the best projiortion for the other?

After the general proportion and form is determined, then the dimensions of the component parts are considered, and it may happen that these will be the only ones left for the designer,,as the conditions of the problem sometimes fix all other sizes. By the component parts is understood (taking a table as an example) the relation of the size of the leg to the whole, the thickness of the top, and its projection ; the depth of the frame, etc. Such questions must be answered for every article, and on the solution depends the quality of the design.

The stumbling block for beginners in design is the habit of thinking in feet and inches. One of the first questions usually asked by students is, how many inches wide shall this, or that, be made? There is a feeling that because it cannot be answered at once it is impossible to make the drawing correctly. It is not necessary, in most instances, to know the figure, as the dimension is dependent entirely on the sense of proportion and practicability. All dimensions fixed by common usage are known or given to the designer; the others should be determined by the knowledge obtained from experience and observation. As the designer becomes proficient he learns that within limits a square post of a given size may be used in certain places, but whether it will look better a little larger or a little smaller is determined by judgment.

The sizes of material found in stock need not interfere with the expressing of ideas that may occur. Lumber can be obtained of almost any size desired, and if it is not at hand the next largest dimension can readily be cut down, at the small expense for waste and labor, which in special work is hardly to be considered. It certainly is not advisable to spoil a good design in order to use material without cutting a little to waste.

A good piece of furniture must he adapted to the intended use, and

12 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION, ETC.

• it should not defy the laws of nature even in appearance. It is not sufficient for it to be strong, but it must appear so, that no thought of weakness may occur; nor ought it to appear unstable. It must be well constructed, otherwise it soon becomes broken or rickety ; and when new, if carelessly made, there will be something about it to cause dissatisfaction. It ought to be pleasing to the eye, not only in design but in workmanship, and its form should express its purpose. Excessive ornamentation is to be avoided. It is better to have too little ornament than too much.

Construction has been placed second in these requirements for good furniture, believing that by following the laws of utility and construction natural and rational forms will be obtained. A designer should, then, have a little knowledge of the principles of construction, and in the following chapters the usual methods will be described as far as is necessary for the needs of a draughtsman.

CHAlTi:U il.

Tables.

THE table consists of a Hat, level surface, suitable to receive whatever may be placed upon it, supported on one or more uprights. The word table properly applies to the top which in early times was called a board, and it was, indeed, nothing more, the supports being trestles not attached in any way to the top itself. The top may be made of wood, marble, glass, etc., and is spoken of accordingly as a wooden table, marble table, glass table, etc. If the material is not mentioned it may be supposed to be of wood. The name of the material is sometimes linked with the geometrical form of the top ; thus, a square table, a circular marble table, an oval slate table, etc.

Tables are made high or low, according to the purpose for which they are used, and may be either with or without drawers. They are composed of three partS' — the top, the frame and the legs. Plate L The top has been described above. The frame is composed of horizontal rails immediately beneath the top and parallel with its edge. It is sometimes omitted on small tables, called "stands," but is common for the larger varieties. It serves as a means of binding the supports and top together as well as strengthening the top, which might otherwise sag beneath its load. The depth of frame gives apparent as well as real solidity to the whole structure. The legs are the supports for the table, and may be secured in several ways to the frame, or its equivalent. There may be but one leg, or post, directly under the center of the top, and ending at the floor in a spreading foot, thus forming a "pillar table." There may be two uprights, one at the middle of each end of a rectangular top, terminating in spreading feet, usually connected by a horizontal rail, near the floor. There may be three, four, or more legs, but four are most frequently used. These legs may be of an endless variety of shapes, and decorated by mouldings, carving, inlay, etc.

On Plate II. are shown twelve legs which can be termed elementary forms, as nearly all others can be reduced to one of these. They are shown as chair legs, but they difTer from table legs in proportions only. By comparing the plans and elevations the drawings explain themselves clearly ; but it is desirable to study particularly numbers 1 1 and 12. Eleven is the "bandy leg" with the ball and claw foot used on "Dutch" and "Colonial" furniture. In many ways it resembles 12, which is the "Louis XV." or "French bandy leg." This latter is much lighter, more graceful and ornamental than the Dutch form, but it at times seems too frail to support the weight it carries ; and, again, the curved lines make it appear as if bending beneath the strain. In many of the exaggerated patterns of these legs the violent curvature causes the defects not only to become more prominent but actually makes the leg weak. If the curvature is great the vertical grain of the wood crosses it at one or more points, and at each of these places there is danger of the leg breaking. By examining the drawings Nos. II and 12 (a larger drawing of 12 in three positions is shown on Plate III.) it will be seen that a vertical line may be drawn throughout the entire length of the leg without intersecting its curved outline. This vertical line represents, then, a portion of the stick from which the leg is cut that has not had the strength weakened. The leg increases in strength directly in proportion as the distance between the contour lines and such a vertical widens. The draughtsman is to observe that, although moulded and cut in irregular forms, the cross section of this leg at any place is practically square, and that in making it a square stick is first sawn so as to have the shape shown as front and side elevation (Plate III.) and then turned over at right angles, on the vertical axis, and the same form cut again. As a result the diagonal view will curve as shown. When the leg is complete and casually examined it is seen in the diagonal view. It is with the recollection of such a view in mind that the designer too frequently lays out the curve for the front and side elevation, giving them the sharp sweep he really intends for the diagonal resultant curve. When the work is made from such a drawing the draughtsman is surprised to find how great the curve is. In designing the bandy leg the proper method is to draw its three elevations and plans as on Plate III. and study the outlines carefully till sure they are right.

Whatever may be the shape of table legs they should be proportioned to the dimensions of the top that they may not seem either too frail or stronger than necessary for the purpose of support. Occa-

CHAIR AND TABLE LKG.S n

FuK 11.

n is tLmTI0h5

11 1

PLAN5 i^w yi !

( I

ELEVATIONS

M

PLANS

FRENCH CHAIR LEG

DlAGOnW. LLtVMlori.

FROHT

XML I I I 1 I

TURNINGS.

sionally it may be desirable to make them so small and delicate thai the table becomes shaky, owing to the elasticity of the wood, though they may be quite strong enough in appearance, and in reality, to sustain the weight intended to be placed on them. When such is the case the legs can be connected, near the floor, by horizontal braces, known as stretchers. Plate VIII. shows three arrangements of stretchers as applied to chairs, and those for tables are similar.

TURNINGS

Stretchers are sometimes used for sesthetic reasons when not needed to stiffen the support. Tables having legs like Xos. 7 and 8, Plate II., do not look well without stretchers ; the baluster forms of the turnings and the heavy foot of each leg seeming to demand a framework binding the supports together.

Turnings are used continually in the construction of furniture, and they always appear smaller than a square stick of the same dimensions. This is apparent in the above illustrations. No. i shows the projection of the corner of a parallelopiped beyond the inscribed cylinder turned from it. The angular projection exists whenever an abrupt change from a square to a turned section is made. As this is objectionable in furniture work, it is cut away by rounding ofif the angle as in No. 2, or by moulding it as in No. 3. Nevertheless if, as in these examples, the diameter of the cylinder and the side of the square are the same the turning appears so much smaller than the square portion of the stick that the transition is too great.

When the design will admit the square parts of the stick are cut down after the turning is made, so that they are a trifle smaller than the turned portions. This makes the two sections seem more nearly of the same dimensions, and is shown in No. 4, whore a torus and fillet are also introduced to make the change of form more gradual. This same feature is shown in No. 5, where the angles of the square are cut away. The square is smaller than the diameter of the turning, and the torus is introduced to grade the transition. No. 6 is a longitudinal section of No. 5. The use of the torus or a bead between the square and turned parts of a post seems desirable in most cases, whatever the profile of the turning. No. 7 shows it in use on a twisted turning.

The depth of the frame of the table is largely a matter of individual taste. If, however, the table is one at which a person is to sit, with his knees beneath it, the frame must not be so deep as to reduce the space between its lower edge and the floor to less than two feet.

An important condition of beauty in a table is its stability. It should not appear insecure on its feet, as happens if the legs are placed too far beneath the top. A safe guide is not to make the spread of the feet of a table less than two-thirds the spread of the top ; or, in other words, the overhang is one-sixth of the top. The overhang may be considerably more than this before the table becomes dangerously insecure, but it will have, nevertheless, an appearance of instability, especially if the width of the top is less than the height above the floor.

It is well to round off slightly the corners of rectangular tables, that they may not present a sharp angle.

The size of a table is determined by its use and the location it is to occupy. Unless intended for a special purpose it is thirty inches high.

Possibly the most important uses to which tables are put are those of dining and writing. For either of these a table thirty inches high can be and is used continually, but there are those who find this somewhat too hi^h. A dining table should be sufficiently low that a per-

son need not raise the dhows wlicn eullini; his fooch and that his plate rests well below him. If a writing- table is too high it is tiresome to sit at and write. Many dining tables and writing tables are, therefore, made but twenty-nine inches high. The side table used in dining rooms as a place from which to serve dishes or to carve should be thirty-six inches high.

A dressing table is made thirty inches high unless the person to use it requests that it be made otherwise. Parlor, fancy tables, etc., intended for ornamental use only, are made to correspond with the surroundings of the rooms in which they are placed, and may be any desired height, as they are neither intended to sit or stand at. The following list will give the dimensions of tables of average sizes that have been made and found satisfactory. It will serve as a guide or starting- point in laying out new designs:

DIMENSIONS OF TABLES.

Variety. Length. \Vi;Uh. Height. Remarks.

Bedrocm ;n 1:2 29

18 IS 30 Ccmracde.

Carving table 42 2I> 3«)

Dressing table 'M* 20 oO

Extension table (iii Wi 30 Rcund.

ri4 r>4 30 Square.

Library table TA 41 30 Oval.

42 27 20

(!0 30 29

Tra table 1."'. 13 20 Rcund.

LS IS 24

^23 17 29 Upper shelf. /

> 30 23 IS Lower Shelf. \

Note: All dimensions are in inches.

The parts of a table have already been named ; it remains to see how they are put together.

The frame is joined to the legs either by the mortise and tenon or hy doweling. The former joint was the old way of framing, but since the introduction of dowels the tenon has largely gone out of use among furniture makers. They consider it old-fashioned. And owing to the shrinkage of the tenon or the carelessness with which it is made it does not seem as strong or equal to a dowel-joint.

The mortise and tenon consists of a tongue (tenon) cut on the end of one of the joined pieces so as to fit tightly in a cavity (mortise) s'unk in the other piece. In table work the tenon is on the end of the frame and may or may not be its full width, while the mortise is in the leg. Plate I.

TABLES.

The dowel joint derives its name from the dowel, a wooden pin, used for fastening the two' pieces together by inserting part of its length in one piece, the rest of it entering a corresponding hole in the other. Where possible more than one dowel is used. In table work two or more are fitted in holes bored for them in the end of the frame, and in the proper position on the legs are corresponding holes in which the dowels fit, and are glued when the two parts are brought together. Some small tables are constructed without a frame; in place of it there is a wooden cleat fastened to the underside of the top and the full diameter of the leg is inserted in this block ; or if the leg is of large size it is tenoned into the block.

The top of a table may be solid or veneered. When small and cheap work is desired it can be made of solid wood ; but otherwise it should be built up and veneered. Solid wood tops shrink, crack, or warp. The only sure way of avoiding these unfortunate occurances is to "build-up" the top. The building up process consists in constructing a core of some common, well-dried, lifeless wood, preferably chestnut or pine. This core is of several strips of wood doweled together at the edges until a board is made about the size of the required top. These strips are arranged in a way that the annular rings curve in opposite directions in each alternate piece. The core is next cross veneered on both sides with hardwood, generally oak. A cross veneering is laid so that the grain is at right angles to that of the wood on which it is applied. In table work it is at right angles to the grain of the core and the finish veneer ; both of these naturally follow the length of the top. All round the edge of the top, after it is cross veneered, is fastened a strip of the finish wood of the table. (Plate I.) Finally, both sides are again veneered with the finish wood; that is, if the wood is not too expensive. If it is costly a cheaper veneer is placed on the underside.

When the design calls for the edge of the top to appear thick it is a needless waste of material to construct it of wood the full thickness, besides making an unnecessarily heavy piece of furniture. To avoid this, and yet obtain the appearance wanted, a frame of wood is fastened to the underside of the otherwise thin top, giving the thickness required. This frame is called the lining piece and the top is said to be lined up.

The method of fastening the top to the frame of the table varies with the class of work, and the size. If it is a small table no special care is taken, the fastening consisting of screws driven through the

DROP LEAF TABLES

Plate IV.

TARLIl UIAVIIS.

rail into the underside of the top. If the rail is narrow and thiek enough the screw is set straight through it. If, however, it is a wide rail the screws are driven in recesses cut for them on the inner side. Most tables are too large to admit of this method. A top fastened as just described is held fast to the frame so if shrinkage takes place there is a strain somewhere that may result in a cracked top. To allow for any movement that may occur short blocks having a tongue that fits securely in a groove cut on the inner side of the table frame are screwed to the underside of the top. These blocks hold the top firmly in position and yet if a shrinkage takes place they are free to move in the grooved frame. -

Tables are frequently provided with a drawer either in the frame or hung beneath the top on cleats. How drawers are made, and the different kinds, are described in Chapter V.

There are occasions that require a table larger than it is convenient to keep standing continually in a room. In early times when tables were nothing more than boards resting on trestles, if they were not needed, the board was turned up against the wall and the trestles stowed away. When the top and the supports became fastened together methods were invented for reducing the size of the table, that it might not take up too much space ; or for enlarging it for special purposes. One of these methods is the use of leaves or flaps, that fold down against the side of the legs. Two things are to be observed in such tables ; the way the leaves are hinged, and how thev are supported when raised.

In cheap vvork the edges of the leaves and top, where they meet, are cut straight and square, forming a plain joint, and the leaf is hung with a hinge on the underside. Plate I\'., No. i. When hung in this way a small crack is seen between the top and the leaf as the latter hangs down, and the hinge also shows.

In better work both these things are considered faults and to avoid them the rule joint is used. Plate I\'., No. 2. This joint is made by moulding both the edge of the leaf and the top where they meet : tlie moulding on the leaf being the reverse of that on the top. The top is cut W'ith a projecting tongue rounded like a quarter cylinder, and the leaf is hollowed to receive it. The hinges are sunk into the underside of the top and leaf with their center corresponding with the center of the quarter round moulding of the meeting edges. Then, as the leaf swings up or down its rebated edge fits snugly against the moulded edge of the top. The hinge is practicall}- concealed and there is no open joint.