Workshop Notes & Sketches for Handicraft Classes: Being a First Year's ...

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Preface

Technical Education being of so recent introduction into our schools, teachers have meantime at their command only a limited selection of text-books on the subject, and in one of its branches, handicraft, no text-book entirely suitable for young pupils has yet been published.

That the present book, which is the result of several years' experience in the teaching >of handicraft in schools, will altogether supply the want, it may be too much to suppose ; but so far as it goes, the course which it lays down has been found to yield very satisfactory results.

By providing pupils with an outline of the session's work, and a concise description of the tools employed, a considerable economy of time is effected.

Only the tools absolutely necessary for the various processes are here described, but should the teacher desire to refer to additional tools or otherwise vary the course, advantage can be taken of the blank pages which have been inserted chiefly for extension notes.

There may be a variety of opinion about the most suitable practice for beginners, but in the writer's experience, that is best which gives every one the opportunity of becoming familiar with some common tools and fundamental processes involving their use.

Such a training leads to manual dexterity and habits of accurate and intelligent observation.

The exercises chosen are of a practical nature, so that any one requiring them for trade purposes may have nothing to unlearn.

To prevent confusion, dimensions have not been noted on the sketches ; they should be given to suit the materials chosen for practice. Frequent reference should be made to the proportion of all parts in the various exercises, and examples of their application exhibited or enumerated.

It may only be added that combinations will readily suggest themselves to the experienced teacher, which will enable him to vary, and to make additions to the course of work here sketched.

Preface To The Second Edition

This Edition of "Workshop Notes and Sketches" has been carefully revised and considerably enlarged. In response to numerous requests made to him, the Author has added an entirely new part on " Metal Work," which it is hoped may meet with an equal measure of approval to that bestowed on his Wood Work notes.

Under the head of Metal Work, the subjects of turning lathes, planing, shaping and drilling machines, blacksmithing, moulding, and fitting are taken up and treated from the standpoint of a practical teacher, whose daily duty it is to instruct in the various branches of handicraft dealt with in this little volume.

October i8g2.

Part I. Wood Working Tools

Bench Planes, Saws, .

Rule, .

Square, Pin-Hammer, .

Marking Gauge, Mortise Gauge, Paring Chisels, Socket Chisels, Gouges, Oilstone, Slip Stone, Oil Can, Paring Board, Bench-Hook, .

Sliding Bevel, Marker, Mallet, Wing Compass, Brad Awls, Screw Driver, Pincers, Spokeshave, .

PAGE

I

4 4 4

4 5 5 5

5 6

7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8

CONTENTS.

Part II. Wood Working

Sawing or Breaking out Wood,

Planing,

Gauging to Width and Thickness,

Jointing,

Halving,

Notching,

Cogging,

Rebate Joint,

Mitre Joint, .

Mortise and Tenon Joint,

Bridle Joints,

Scarfing,

Board Jointing,

Dovetail Joints,

Half-Lap Dovetail,

Wood Turning,

PAGB lO

19 20

25 26

Part III. Metal Working

Turning Lathes, Planing Machines, Shaping Machines, Drilling Machines, Blacksmith Work, Moulding and Casting, Fitting and Finishing,

35 36 37 39 44 47

Sketches.

Part I. General Description Of Tools

Bench Planes. — An ordinary set comprises, in general the three — {di) Jack plane, (b) halflong, truing or trying plane, and (c) hand or smoothing plane. The jack plane is used for removing the rough surface after the saw, securing approximately correct surfaces, and for rough work generally. The halflong is employed for straightening, flattening or truing surfaces after the jack plane. The hand plane is used for smoothing or finishing work after the other planes, as also for numerous purposes for which the jack or halflong would be unsuitable. The stocks of bench planes are made of beech. The irons or cutters are of wrought iron faced with cc^t steel to form the cutting edge, which makes grinding more easily performed than if they were wholly made of cast steel. The irons are fixed in the planes at the angle of 45** to the face and kept in position by beech wedges Plane irons are sharpened on the grindstone at the angle of about 25", on one side only — the other being left quite flat; and afterwards on the oilstone at about the angle of 35°, thus leaving about 10* as an angle of clearance. Each iron is

I WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES.

provided with a steel cover (kept in position by a screw) for the purpose of strengthening the cutting edge, and at the same time acting on the shaving as it is being removed, raising it up at a more obtuse angle and enabling the cutting edge to get closer to the point where the shaving is being severed from the wood. This secures a better cutting action, and removes to a great degree the splitting tendency, otherwise unavoidable. The screws are all right handy and are tightened on being turned by the thin pane of a pin hammer, in the same direction as that of the forward motion of the hands of a clock or watch. The cover of a jack plane iron should be kept about ^" from the cutting edge, whilst those of halflong and hand planes should be placed as close to the edge as practicable.

To keep planes in good working order, the stocks, when new, ought to be well soaked with raw linseed oil^ and receive an occasional coat afterwards. This will cause them to work more easily, last longer, look better, and be more pleasant to handle.

Saws. — The saws required in general work are the rending or ripping-saw, cross-cut or hand-saw, panel-saw, tenonsaw, dovetail saw, and compass-saw. They may be classified into three divisions, (a) for cutting along the grain of the wood, (b) for cutting across the grain and (c) for cutting both ways. The rending-saw is the only one belonging to the first class, the cross-cut and panel-saws belong to the second, and the remaining three to the third. The chief differences exist in form and size of teeth and blade,

Rending-Saw. — The cutting fcLces of rending-saw teeth are almost at right angles to a line touching their points. The teeth are nearly of the form of right angled triangles, but for hard woods this hook or angle is too great, and the teeth are sloped backwards so as to make the angle of contact with the wood more obtuse.

Cross-cut or Hand-saw, — ^This saw has its teeth more in the form of equilateral triangles, and thus resembles a rending saw used for hard wood, the angle being nearly equal at both sides. The teeth of this saw are somewhat smaller than those of the rending saw, as the saw itself is also smaller than the other.

Panel-Saw. — The panel-saw is very similar to the cross-cut, only its teeth are smaller, and its blade smaller and thinner.

Tenon-Saw.— This saw has a thinner blade and finer teeth than any of the foregoing, and. is used for finer work. To strengthen the thin blade, a thick back is supplied, giving to it the name of the back-saw,

• Dovetail-Saw. — This is like the tenon-saw in all respects, only smaller and finer every way, and is used for finer and lighter work.

Compass-Saw. — The compass-saw has a narrow, tapered blade, and is used for curved work, as in following the lines traced by a compass.

Saw blades are made of cast steel plate, while the backs of tenon and dovetail-saws are made of iron, steel, or brass. The handles are made of beech, fixed to the blades by brass screws. Good saws have their blades ground thinner towards the back. This makes them more easily worked, even with a smaller amount of set

Set. — Set is the bending of adjacent teeth to opposite sides, to make a wider saw-kerf znd thus reduce the friction on the sides of the saw. The cleaner the saw. cuts and the drier the wood, the less necessity for set ; but if the wood is wet, or the saw dully then the value of set will be more readily perceived.

Sharpening. — Saws are sharpened by files of triangular section, the blade being secured in a suitable vice. Alternate teeth are sharpened from the same side, one complete side being sharpened and then the saw reversed for the sharpening of the opposite side. The file must be held at different suitable angles to give the proper form to the teeth.

The Rule. — For workshop purposes the rule varies in length from 6 in. to 4 ft., the longer ones being made to fold up into convenient lengths. The i, 2, and 3 foot rules are most largely used — the latter two being folded up into 5 in. and 9 in. lengths respectively. Each foot is divided into inches and any suitable fractional part of an inch, as J in., \ in., ^ in., ^ in., &c. Rules are mostly made of boxwood and mounted with brass ; but small ones, to be used also as straightedges, are often of steel or brass.

The Square. — This tool is made up of two parts— the sfock and the d/adey fixed together at the angle of 90°. The former part is made of rosewood, covered on the edge by a brass plate to prevent wear, the latter is a thin steel plate, and both are fixed together by means of rivets to prevent shifting.

Pin-Hammer. — The form of this tool for bench work is varied, but a convenient shape is one with a thin crass-pane, suitable for moving the plane iron screws. A useful weight is about 10 oz. The Aead is made of cast steel and the handle of ash. The handle is slightly reduced in section towards the head so as to afford it more spring.

Marking Gauge- — One common form of construction of this tool is a sliding block of beech, fitted tightly on a parallel bar of the same material and provided with a screw of boxwood, let into the side of the former, so that it can be xtdidiXy pinched on to the latter, to fix them in any desired position. At one end of the bar, a sharp steel pin is passed through for the purpose of marking the wood to be gauged. This tool is employed for gauging wood to any desired size, such as, for example, width or thickness of a rectangular block, preparatory to planing down to the required dimensions.

Mortise Gauge.—The mortise g^iige is very* much like the marking gauge, the chief difference lying in its being supplied with two marking pins instead of one. The block and bar are made of rosewood, and the screw of steel. One of the pins can be nioved along the bar by means of a screw and slide, so that the marking pins may be set at any desired distance apaxt. This gauge is used for making two marks at one time, necessary as in the case of the mortise and tenon joint.

Paring Chisels.— These are divided into two classes, namely, firmer chisels and bevel-edged chisels. Firnler chisels are of rectangular section, while the others, as their name indicates, have their edges bevelled away at an angle, making them more suitable for some kinds of work, as also lighter to use. They are made entirely of cast steel, the cutting edges being at one end and a tapered tang at the other. The cutting edge is formed by grinding at the angle of zd* and setting on the oilstone at an angle of abouJt 30°. This is done on one side only, the tool being left ^iie flat oh the other, just as in the plane irons, and unlike the axe, which is sharpened equally from both sides. A hardwood handle is driven on to the tang. Chisels vary in width from -^ in. to 2 in. and upwards, and are employed to form flat surfaces, on many of which the planes could not be applied.

Socket Chisels.— For heavier work this chisel is more suitable than the firmer chisel, and instead of the handle being driven on to a tang, it is fitted into a socket. They are also known as mortise chisels heca.use much of the work done by them is of the nature of mortising. The most of their work being heavy, a hammer or mallet is necessary to drive them into the wbod, the mallet being the better of the ^o for this purpose.

Gouges.— Gouges are very much Hke firmer chisels, only they have a curved form of section. They are of two kinds, namely, firmir gouges^ which are ground on the outside of the curvature, and incanneled gouges^ ground on the inside. This is to allow of a greater variety of work being done by them. They are to be had from \ in. upwards. The general remarks on firmer chisels apply here, except that in sharpening the concave surface, a slip of oilstone with a suitably curved edge has to be used, the oilstone itself being employed for the outside.

Oilstone.— This piece of bench-furnishing has a variety of names, such as hone^ set-stone^ whet-stone^ sharpening-stone^ &c. It is used for sharpening or setting edge tools after the grindstone has performed its part. The oilstone ought to be mounted in a small case of hard wood, having its upper surface covered when not in use, to protect from dust. Some good oil, such as sperm, should be applied on the surface operated upon, which surface ought to be kept as cliftan and flat as possible.

Slip Stone.— This is simply a small piece of oilstone with rounded edges of different thickness and curvature, and is used for sharpening gouges or edge tools of curved or irregular form, on which the common oilstone cannot be conveniently brought to act. It may be fixed in a case with the edge up, or used in the hand without any case.

Oil Can.— The most suitable form for bench use is made of conical shape, either of brass or tinplate. The bottom is flexible, and a nozzle having a small hole is screwed into the top. The discharge of oil is effected by inverting the can and lightly pressing the bottom.

Paring Board.— To prevent the benches from being cut with chisels, or other edge tools, and likewise to prevent the tools themselves from being blunted by coming in contact with any sand, nail, or other hard substance which might be on the benchtop, it is advisable to be provided with a small piece of service wood to work upon, which should be used at all times when any process entails such operations as paring, &c. Its top surface should be kept clean and flat, and if damaged in such a way as to mark the work, should be refaced.

Bench- Hook. —Although much of the sawing generally done against the bench-hook can be performed against the bench stopy yet if the wood has to be cut through, it is the safer way to use the hook, as there is less danger of cutting the surface of the bench. Any cutting of the bench is always objectionable and more especially near the stop itself.

Sliding Bevel.— Although different from the square, still the shding bevel is used for exactly similar work. Its corresponding parts are made of the same materials as those of the square, only the stock and blade are fixed together by means of a screw instead of rivets, which allows them to be set at any desired angle to one another. The blade is provided with a slot, so that it may be shifted on end to suit special circumstances.

Marker,— This tool is also known by such names as the drawpoint and scriber. It is formed of a tapered piece of steel wire about 6 in. long, and \ in. diameter at one end (on which may be fixed a handle) but coming to a sharp point at the other. It is employed for marking or lining the more exact pieces of work, such as in dovetail jointing, &c., when it is used to trace the exact size and form of the dovetail pins upon the piece in which the holes are to be made, or to make other exact transfers when the pencil would not be suitable.

Mallet.— When mortising or heavy paring has to be done, it is not advisable to use a hammer, as the tool handles are too readily damaged by this means. For such purposes the mallet should be taken. Like hammers, these tools are made in a variety of shapes, guided by the kind of work and the taste of the workman. They may be made of various hard woods, the chief item of importance being to select a piece of wood of tough nature and not ready to split.

a WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES.

\yins Compass.— The chief difference between this one and the simple compass is that the former is provided with a radial wing fixed into one leg and passing through a small slot in the other, where it can be pinched by a thumb screw to set the compass at any required radius. Besides being used for describing circles, or parts of circles, on the work under treatment, one common use this tool is put to is that of laying off equal distances either in a straight line or along the circumference of a circle. By this means a much more exact result is arrived at, than by the employment of the rule and pencil.

Brad Awls.—Brad awls are used for making holes suitable for small nails and screws. They are made of steel and vary in diameter from the size of a small needle up to J in. They are sharpened equally at opposite sides and brought to a sharp flat point. On the other end there is a tang on which is driven a handle. The cutting edge should be inserted into the wood across the grain to prevent splitting. The tool ought to be held as nearly as possible in the direction in which the hole is begiin^ as any attempt to alter it after the hole has been nearly bored might result in the breaking of the awl. Equal care should b^ taken in extracting it from the wood, for the same reasoti.

Screw Driver.— Another name for this tool is the turnscrew. It is used for turning or driving screw nails, as its nam^ suggest, and is made of suitable sizes to fit different screws.. The bar which acts on the screw is made of steel and thinned on the point to fit the groove in the head of the screw. Like the chisel, the other end is formed into a tang, upon which is fixed a handle somewhat broader and flatter than the chisel handle.

Pincers.— The pincers are used to pull out service nails, or those which have gone wrong, in driving. Although cjuite suitable for bench work, they are discarded by joiners in roof work, floor work, and general lining, in favour of the claw-hammer^ which can perform the double function of both driving and drawing nails.

Spokeshave.— For finishing many small curves the planes are quite unsuited, and have to give place to the spokeshave, which is constructed for the purpose. Boxwood and beech are the usual materials of which its stock is made, but metal is also used. The iron has two tangs at right angles to the cutting edge, by means of which it is held firmly in the stock, the position of the iron regulating the thickness of the shaving, as in the bench planes. Both hands are needed to work the spokeshave, and the guiding surface being so small, makes dexterity in its use rather difficult to acquire.

Part II

Sawing or Breaking out Wood.— Before commencing to cut out material for any piece of work, it is necessary to know exactly the sizes of the several pieces required, the best method of construction, and the class of wood to be used. Unless these points are attended to, mistakes will be the outcome, leading to loss of time and material, besides the danger of getting into bad habits. It is always advisable to see the way clear from the beginning to the end, arrd this can only be done by having correct drawings of the articles to be constructed, from which a thorough mental grasp of the whole should be obtained before starting work. When a list of the sizes and sorts of wood required, with allowance for sawing and planing, has been made up and the wood selected, the rule, pencil, square, straightedge, and saws should be at hand for lining on and cutting out the pieces required. If those pieces are parallel, and one edge of the board from which fhey are to be taken is quite straight, then a very simple way of drawing the lines parallel to the edge, is by using the rule and pencil like a marking gauge. The rule, held in the left hand, is placed square across the top surface of the board as far as the desired width of the piece to be cut out, and kept in position by the thumb nail, which performs the functions of the sliding block of the marking gauge. The pencil, as marker, must be pressed against the end of the rule, and be in contact with the surface of the wood. If both rule and pencil are now simultaneously and carefully moved towards the body, a line, parallel to the edge, will be drawn. By adopting this practice, a considerable amount of time is saved. The forefinger nail of the left hand should not be used in place of the thumb nail, for fear of accident. In many instances the wood may not be straight on the edge, and the pieces required may be of irregular shapes, and in these the rule and straightedge should be resorted to. The best arrangement of the pieces to be cut from a board, is that which allows them to be broken out most easily and with the smallest possible waste. Should knots or small cracks be objectionable, then both sides of the wood ought to be well examined before lining, to avoid disappointment, and waste of time and material when the work has reached a more advanced stage. This is a safe precaution at all times.

In sawing out^ the greatest care should be observed to cut exactly by the lines and quite square through, but never on any account to cut further than is absolutely necessary. As considerable difficulty is generally experienced by beginners in starting the cut, it will be found a great assistance if the weight of the saw is nearly all borne by the right hand, while the points of the teeth are brought lightly in contact with the wood, the blade being guided into position by the thumb of the left hand. Should the saw tend to leave the line, this can be counteracted by a slight twist on the handle in the opposite direction, by the right hand. This tendency is often due to a blunt side of the saw, or less set on one side than the other, but more generally to a constant

12 \yORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES.

pressure by the hand in one direction, which should be parly avoided.

: plajiingf.— In using the planes, so as to obtain good results, they ought to be kept quite sharp ; the covers must be screw^ firmly in their proper places on the irons; the shavings should be kept clear out of the plane mouth to prevent choking; and the planes held steadily and straight along the wood.

Planing the Fape. — The best surface should be selected for the face. If a piece of wood has been standing for some time on the, ground, the end may be covered with sand, and to avoid blunting the planes, it may either be cut off with the saw, or a small corner, called a chamfer^ taken oflf the surface to be planed This may be done by the paring chisel or jack plane. A shaving should then be taken off all over, and the face made approximately correct with the jack plane before using the halflong upon it. The properties of ;a true face are tlireefold, ist, fiat across, tested by the edge of the square blade applied crossways; 2nd, straight lengthways, tes|ed (if short) by the edge of the square blade placed along the wood^ but if long, by a straightedge of suitable length, or more commonly by the eye ; and 3rd, out of twist or windings tested by diagonal application of the edge of square blade both ways, by the eye, or by two windings ticks, which are simply parallel pieces of wood laid across the piece to be tested, one at each end, with the edge up, when any twist or winding may be detected by looking across their upper edges. After the face has been properly finished with the halflong, some distinctive mark should be put upon it, as on a. Fig. 12.

The Edge.-^If the wood is thin and broad, it will be most easily held in position by fixing in the vice, with the edge up, which will allow both hands to be free for manipulating the planes. The properties of a true edge are its being, ist, at right angles to the face, and 2nd, straight lengthways. The

WORKSHOP NOTES AND ^JSffV^Oj^^^^''

17?

former is te$ted by fitm. app^catipn of the^o|^iSf 'Sjgjlste-^ock upon the y5i<^^, with the edge of the blade passing' across the edge of the wood, accuracy be{ing obtained when the wood exactly fills the square. The latter is tested by the same means as thq corre$ppndjng property of the /ace. The edge when finished with the balfipng should be marked in the same way as the^^^. None of the other sides, however, should be marked in this manner. i

The Ends. — The ends can be most easily planed when the wood is fixed intp the vice, end up, and only a little above th€{ surfe<?,e of the bench. As in this process there is a danger of spHlting pieces off the edge, it is advisable to use as little iron ^^ practicable and to plane away from the finished edge. To prevent splitting, A small chamfer can be taken pff the far corner with thi^ paring chisel. If sand shplild happen to be on the end, then a short piece should be cut off with the saw before planing. The; properties of a true end are — square to both face and edge, an<l tested by the square in a similar manner to the? first .property of the edge. Both ends liiay be planed if the exact length is known,

Gausins to Width and Thickness.— Gauging i§ somewhat difficult for the beginner. The chief error is the tendency to put too much weight on the marking point and ^tp^ little pressure of the sliding blpck on the face or edge. Sucl^ mistakes result in a crooked and irregular, line, not at all parallel to the surface gauged from. A very light mark should at first be made, seeing that the block is pressed firmly and flatly on th§ surface gauged from, while the gauge should be slightly tilted tp prevent the marker getting ;tPo deep into the; wood. When s\, correct line has been formed, the depth can be readily increased so as to make it distinctly visible. In planing the rough part with the jack plane down to the gauge line^, occasional examinations should be made, in order to insure a regular approach to th^ lines, without going beyond at any point. The surfaces should be finished quite flat with the halflong to the centre of the gauge-lines, and the square blade may be applied occasionally to test the truth of each.

Modifications of the foregoing instructions will have to be made in cases when the conditions may be different, as, for instance, when the edges or ends do not require to be at right angles to the face. In such cases the sliding bevel, set at the required angle, would be used in a similar way to the square.

Jointing. —In some exercises no jointing of the several pieces may be required, as they may be fixed together by glue, nails, or screws. In construction of the great majority of articles made of wood, joints of various sorts are an absolute necessity. In order that sufficient practice may be got in planing, gauging, exact measurement, and cutting to lines preparatory to jointing, it will be advisable to procure a piece of wood about i in. square, and from 12 to 15 in. long. It must be planed correctly on face and edge, and gauged to the greatest size it will stand, either J in., f in., or under. When finished, a line must be accurately drawn on each side, at right angles to face or edge, by the square and pencil (observing the advice given at the centre of page 16), and as far from the end as the width of the wood. This part must now be carefully cut off" with the dovetail saw, so that each line may be split, and the end left quite square. If not successfully performed at first, the process should be repeated till the cube is exact, after which the same thing should be done by the help of the angular groove, cut on each side, as described on page 17. If unsatisfactory, this, also, should be repeated until the work is without fault.