The working of the mind in piano teaching and playing; an application of the principles of psychology and physiology to the work of the teacher and player of the piano and other instruments 1923

Front matter

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CUT E 1

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Preface

In late years the psycho-physical aspect of piano playing has come deservedly more and more into the foreground and gradually claimed the attention of the progressive teacher.

Progress is still slow, is still a matter for a hard fight, as is generally the case when deeply rooted traditions, cherished ideals and truths have to be sent to the scrap heap that Father Time establishes now and then on the corners of periods of development, for the benefit of progress.

The seeking of new truth is always connected with many endeavors that lead off into nowhere or, which is worse, into the opposite direction. The one who blazes a new trail through the virgin forest is apt to lose his bearings.

But this is only natural. The author himself recollects, with much satisfaction and glee, having made the remark in a lecture in Boston at the early stage of his investigations ‘‘that the fingers are the most superfluous part of the arm so far as piano playing is concerned.” —Pater peccavil

But this carrying of a new principle ad absurdum is only the consequence of the true insight into conditions; it is but the outcome of an over-valuation of principles nevertheless true, of the new state of affairs. And, after all, failure is the basis of all success.

During the past seventy-five years a large number of devoted, earnest and sincerely progressive piano

I pedagogues have labored unselfishly to find a fundamental typical condition for piano technic, a basis to which all piano motions could be reduced, and a common typical condition where all should start.

In this endeavor many often violently contrasting principles have been advocated, but the matter is becoming clarified and more simple.

The basic idea of all these reforms was the rebellion against the old pure finger technic, which was still handed down theoretically from ‘‘Method”’ to ‘‘Method,’ but which practically had ceased to be of value when the heavy modern piano action made its application impossible. ‘The opening shot was fired by Stoewe with his Clavier Technic demonstrated as a Science of Motion. More and more the idea of looking upon technic from a mechanical viewpoint gained a foothold, and gradually from out the deeper and ever deeper insight which came from unbiased study and observation piano technic has developed into a physiologic science of motion which can, for a while, be entirely separated from music, ay

And this is as it should bel Music is the final goal of all piano technic; but it isnot piano technic. If we wish to get a ane understanding of and an insight into the latter we must eliminate music during the period of our research and observation. |

Modern philosophy emphasizes thé~Spiritual element strongly as a reaction of the great physiologic period of the English philosophers. On the other hand physiology and psychology are coming closer together by ascribing many psychologic phenomena to physiologic causes. These two forces at work have also influenced our view of piano playing and gradually the physiologic science of motions has found its true mate and now we recognize the psycho-physiologic science of motion.

For the first time since “‘my lady” took her little virginal with needle cushion attached out into the garden under the linden tree has piano technic reached the

PREFACE true haven after having sailed the seas through seven centuries like the Flying Dutchman. Thrown about by the waves of emotion and feeling it was saved from going ashore by divine intuition and God-given pianistic instinct only.

It is no wonder. What attracts us first and most will claim our interest and attention. When we are out in a canoe in the middle of a lake on a moonlight summer’s night, but little do we care for planetary differentiations of this or that orbit, the rate of speed or frequency of return in the next two million years.

The old pedagogue went by instinct alone, individually and personally always the safest road to take, provided one has to deal with pupils who possess it and not with those who never will have it. Yet the latter are the majority of pupils; in their case teaching makes up for the absent instinct. We must make them play as if they really had it and so carry the burden of white and black keys through our life, full of rich devotion and poor rewards.

But science is lifting this burden more and more and will keep on doing so. This book is an attempt to assist in the endeavor and to help the fellow teacher in his work.

The book is the outcome of fifteen years of hard study and close observation. It has grown naturally in the studio at the piano and at the desk in the class room. Its material formed a course of lectures given in my school before the normal students and is therefore not abstract but the result of practical teaching.

Its start was due to the desire to do better work, to be able to answer pupils’ questions, to improve pupils’ work, to find and then to overcome the obstacles that seemed to be in the way of success to most of them. It was not an easy task for the material had to be collected from abstract scientific works on anatomy, physiology, and psychology; after that deductions had to be made from these principles to apply to piano playing. Often these proved wrong; a new

In Prano PLAYING AND [TEACHING start had to be made and what had been written relegated to the waste basket. Six times this treatment was necessary until now I feel reasonably sure that I have penetrated as far as is possible into the psycho-physical reasons and foundations of piano technic.

This book is not a method, but an attempt to give to the piano teacher a text-book in which all fundamental principles are dealt with from an unbiased scientific and above all from a non-musical point of view.

It is but the first volume of an extensive and complete work, ‘“The Psycho-physiology of Piano Teaching and Playing.” The other parts in preparation are:

The Working of the Body.

The Physiology of Motion.

The Mechanism of Piano and Tuning Production.

True insight into these will enable the teacher to build up for himself any method he chooses, to do with it what he wishes, and then to call his method whatever he wants to. Yet there exists but one true method. This is the recognition of the individuality of the pupil by the teacher through his knowledge of the fundamental essentials and the choice of what is best suited to each pupil.

INTRODUCTION PHYSIOLOGY OF PIANO PLAYING

Under physiology we-understand the dealing with ‘the nature of things. It gives us the reasons for their existence and the relationship between their single parts and to other things. Applied to ART in general it deals with the physical as compared with the esthetic side, and with the actual work or handicraft as compared with emotions and conceptions.

PHYSIOLOGY OF PIANO PLAYING, therefore, deals with the non-artistic, non-emotional, non-musical side of piano playing. It deals with the Central Nervous System as muscle-directing energy, with the muscular tissue as motion producer.

ENERGY

The basis of all our work is energy, by which is understood the useful labor produced by the action of one body upon another. The energy at the disposal of a human being and expended by him is his vitality which he uses up in his efforts.

Vitality is the physical capital with which the human being is endowed at his birth. It is a force that, like all other forces capable of work in the whole universe, remains unchanged. We cannot add to it; but we can economize in its expenditure by using the most advantageous forms and modes of working it.

We can use up our vitality mentally or physically, for there is but one; and our working ability depends a great deal upon economy of this vitality. A tired brain will ultimately prevent the muscular system from doing its best work, and vice versa, a tired muscular system will handicap the brain in its work.

The greater or smaller amount of energy expended upon a task brings about the endless variety and modifications of the results. As our will power is often stronger than our physical resources it happens frequently that an individual overdraws his account and must suffer the consequences.

Piano playing is a demonstration of energy, a transmission of the human nerve and muscular power to the mechanism of the piano and in a ratio absolutely balanced; so much power expended, so much result in return; and as in all finely balanced exchanges, “too little” or “too much” may fail to produce the wanted effect. (The understanding of the proper amount of power necessary to produce certain effects and the ability to control this power is the true foundation of all piano playing and teaching. The reason for most failures is not so much lack of power as wasteful overexertion. |

Bodily skill in everything, therefore in piano playing, is the gradual elimination of surplus or useless motions, the gradual| cutting down of muscular effort to just the proper amount necessary, ‘to a final beautiful and well-balanced union between the labor to be performed and the muscular exertion which is to perform it.

_Thus skill means a saving of effo rt, an economy in the use of bodily capital, energy mR ees as skill is but the consequence of cerrect habits_the greatest saving of vitality lies in_contracting |correct habits from the very beginning. By “correct” is to be understood that which is most natural, most rational and easiest for the beginner to do.

THe PRocEss OF A SINGLE PIANO TONE

The production of a single piano tone, simple as it may look when an accomplished pianist strings thousands of tones together with lightning-like rapidity, is

PHYSIOLOGY OF PIANO PLAYING nevertheless a most complicated affair. It is one in which the most varied processes cooperate and follow each other in rapid succession, never to be changed, none to be omitted, unless the whole process be immediately doomed to failure. While with the pianist this chain of causations rolls off smoothly and unnoticeably, with the child beginner it is a laborious process, one which can be followed only step by step. For whenever one force gives way to another the child must stop and bridge the chasm over until constant repeating has gradually smoothed these rough places and made a harmonious unit of the whole process. |

The child sees the symbol (note) on the paper. Employing the sense of seeing he knows from experience (teaching) that this note, say, for instance, C, has a corresponding key on the piano which is to be played or sounded. He now makes up his mind (the popular way of defining will power) to play this note, and from the motor center a command is sent to the nerve plexuses which run from the upper part of the spinal column into both arms, hands and fingers. If the right hand is to be active the command comes from the left side of the brain and vice versa.

Like a message sent over a wire this command runs along the nerves, crossing from the large arm nerves into the smaller ones of the hand and the fingers and, finally, the command is delivered at the nerve plates of those particular groups of muscles which are to do the actual playing.

So far, everything has been the work of senses and nerves. Now the muscular power begins to work. The work of the muscles is done by contracting; and they now contract in the measure that, through experience, has been found necessary to overcome the resistance of the key. The moment the finger comes in contact with the key the human energy is transferred in exact ratio to the so-called action of the piano, and FOR A WHILE THE HUMAN FACTOR IS ENTIRELY ELIMINATED

In PrANO PLAYING AND TEACHING

FROM THE PROCESS. Through key and hammer the energy is transferred to the string, and another change in force takes place according to mechanical law.

A law of acoustics decrees that an agitated string can vibrate only so many times a second and must produce a tone of.a certain pitch in each case. But physical law reaches still farther. ‘The string transmits its state of agitation to the air surrounding it. With the air acting as transmitter the vibration of the string finally reaches the ear of the player as sound wave. When this sound wave reaches the inner ear it excites a very sensitive organ (organ of Corti) which will vibrate sympathetically in the exact manner and frequency of the vibration of string. Through the auditory nerve this disturbance of the inner ear is carried to the auditory center, and the player becomes conscious of having played the note C, of the paper, on the proper key of the piano.

The whole process is a circle\of mental, muscular, mechanical, and again mental action, but it was mind FIRST and mind LastT..) The muscles of the arm are only the servants of the mind and the executors of its orders. “L’esprit gouverne, le corps obeit (The mind governs, the body obeys)”’ (Wetterstrand). The close connection of these different individual processes is easily proved when we make the experiment of omitting just one.

The symbol on the paper does not exist to a blind person, neither do the sound waves to one whose hearing is impaired. ‘The absence of a key would make the finest muscular power useless, the absence of the string would make of no avail the most delicate of touch, while the absence of an acoustic transmitter would fail to bring the result of all these motions to the player’s ear and he would have to depend upon his eyesight for control, as he must in playing on a dumb keyboard.

The connection of such single tone processes with others in endless, ever-varying combinations forms

PuysioLocy oF PIANO PLAYING piano technic. By constantly repeating these connections (practising) this process is gradually made smoother and faster, and finally entirely automatic; then the player may express whatever emotions the music arouses in him, unhampered by thoughts of the technical labor. This must be the final aim of all piano teaching.

All our efforts have their origin in the Central Nervous System. It is therefore necessary that a piano teacher should have at least a rudimentary knowledge of the physiology of this central nervous system.

The relation between the central nervous system and the body may be best compared with that of the main office of a telephone sysaem and its sub-stations, in which the nerve cells represent the instruments and the nerves the wires. The nerve trunks, coming from the spinal column, extend into the different sections of the body where they divide into smaller branches and then into microscopic fibers; so that finally every part of the body is in constant communication with the nerve center proper. But not only is the central nervous system connected with the different sections of the body; the nerve cells themselves are inter-connected by fibers which run from cell to cell, like vines in an ar- _ bor, an arrangement therefore called arborization.

The central nervous system is located in the spinal column and its extension known as the brain. The spinal column consists of many separate vertebre (thirty-one in number) of which the different groups are connected with different sections and members of the body through sixty-two nerve trunks. Of these groups one consisting of eight and located in the lower part of the neck is closely connected with piano playing. For the nerves running from these vertebra, known as the Arm plexus, are connected with the different arm-muscle groups and control the motions of

IO the arm, hand and fingers. They are the wires over which the central ‘nervous system’s commands are transmitted.

The spinal column is filled with gray matter in the center surrounded by a layer of white matter. The white consists mostly of nerve fibers and the gray matter of innumerable nerve cells. ‘“The central nervous system is nothing but a mechanism for receiving impulses and discharging reactions’ (James). But as piano playing is also the result of received impulses and discharged reactions or of perceptions and motions the knowledge of the working of this sensitive organism is most useful to the teacher in tracing, understanding and remedying many faults of his pupils. For all education of the muscles is “really but education of the spinal cord’ (Martin). Here are the coordinating centers for the different muscle groups. In other words, all muscular efforts are the result of processes in the spinal column or the central .nervous system. Piano playing, in the final analysis, is but a matter of motions and will be treated in this book from that point of view.

THE BRAIN.

The continuation of the spinal column matter into the skull is called the brain and consists of millions of nerve cells, often also referred to as gray matter. The brain is the seat of consciousness and intelligence, but is not consciousness and intelligence itself. Our consciousness is not aware of the processes going on in the brain; it only registers the result.

The activity of the brain is a double one. The higher centers tend to the finer sensations and intellectual functions such as hearing, seeing, etc., while the lower centers are occupied with the reflex motor functions, and the cerebellum :with combined muscular movements. Therefore the seat of piano motions, after having become acquired or habitual, would be found in the last named, the cerebellum.

II

The brain is a most sensitive organ, one which can be improved by exercise provided by our senses, a process commonly called education. For in reading and listening to Music it is not the ear and eye which become educated, but the brain. It is so also with motions on the keyboard. For finger activity without brain action, conscious or unconscious, is unthinkable; while all motor exercise is beneficial to the brain and helps to develop it.

If, for instance, a student should play F, B, D, G, instead of F*, B, D, G, the mistake is made in the

brain; the finger which played F instead of F* carried - out the mistake of the brain only and is not in itself at fault. A “‘mis-take” is always the result of a “misthought.”

CONDUCTIVITY AND CONTRACTILITY

In the mutual relations between nerve center and muscles the nerves have the office or power to conduct impulses, sensations and stimuli. The muscles have the power to contract for the purpose of motions. Both properties, conductivity and contractility, are known under the collective name of irritability which is the power to respond to an outside stimulus.

In piano playing this irritability consists of the perception of the written music which acts as a stimulus | and is conducted over nerve fibers to its proper centers. From here it proceeds, changed into a command to the muscles; these contract, act and move arm, fingers, or whatever is intended to be moved.

This combined process may be explained as sensation, reaction and motion, and finally develops into knowledge, will power, skill.

NERVE CELLS AND NERVE TRUNKS In the central nervous system there are estimated to be between two and three thousand millions of nerve cells. All these little microscopic organisms are physically independent, yet they are in direct or indirect communication with each other through fibers or prolongations which extend from the main part or nucleus. Of these fibers one is of more importance and is known as the axis cylinder. Many of these are often combined to make one nerve trunk.

Nerve cells are nourished by the blood which the

~ heart sends to them while active. (‘This nourishment “is assumed to change chemically and to create-a-certain tension which leaves the cell as a discharge of en- .

~~“ders which are enclosed by a covering for insulating purposes, like the wires in a cable. ‘Thus a nerve trunk may hold a number of nerve fibers, each performing different functions without interfering with each other. ‘hey are the means of communication between nerve cells and muscles. Neither cell nor muscle is independent, for the muscle depends upon the nerve cells for its stimulus or innervation, and the nerve cell looks to the muscle to realize its order.

Each nerve naturally has two terminals, one in the nerve cell proper, and one in a muscle which it enters by a so-called nerve plate, or innervation point; when such an entering point of a nerve is stimulated by an electric current the muscle will immediately contract. Like the electric stimulation the one coming from the nerve cell itself is absolutely mechanical; and this proves, as has been said before, that the central nervous system and its various parts have no consciousness; it is but a mechanism. When applied to fundamental piano playing it shows us the great truth THAT IN TEACHING WE CAN SEPARATE THE MECHANICAL PART ENTIRELY FROM THE ARTISTIC AND MUSICAL; IN FACT WE MUST SEPARATE FIRST IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO DO ARTISTIC WORK LATER ON.

There are two different kinds of nerves, afferent _nerves, running in from the surface or periphery of the body and carrying sensations; these are, therefore, also called sensory nerves.. The other nerves—called efferent nerves—run in the opposite direction from brain —

—— to surface, and as they carry the command of motions to the muscle they are called motor.nerves. ~

When a piano player sees a note the sensation 1s brought to the central nervous system and finally to his consciousness by the sensory nerves; but when he plays it on the keyboard the command to act has been delivered to his muscle by a motor nerve, and again the sensation of having touched the key is reported back by a sensory nerve.

We have no knowledge of how this is done. We can see only the result. For this various explanations have been offered, such as that the nerves act like a bell rope, or that a liquid in them is set to vibration or that a substance in the nerves is burned up like a fuse.

NeERvVE-Moror UNITs

Having become acquainted with the different physical parts of the Central Nervous System we will now see how these different parts cooperate in piano playing, assuming that our player is a beginner. In the working of the central nervous system three distinct actions are noticeable:

(a) Stimulus (b) Reaction (c) Discharge

A stimulus is the action of an external force which brings about a change known as nervous impulse. In a player’s brain this stimulus is the note on the paper; the reaction is the changing of this into energy which, as a discharge, goes over the arm nerves into the muscles. This triple process is enacted so rapidly that when, for instance, we touch a hot object we withdraw the fingers and cry out. The three actions appear as one yet several trips have been made over several nerves and to several muscle centers.

This circular route from mind to muscle and back again is made every time, whether the action is really carried out or not for “‘all states of mind, even mere thoughts and feelings, are motor (prompt motion) in consequence or are followed by motor activity”’ (James). The seeing of the note on the paper (sensation) is not necessarily followed by the actual playing of it on an instrument, yet it will be almost impossible for a trained piano player to refrain from going through the proper action (or playing of it) in his mind. In other words, when the discharge has followed the sensation and reaction a special supply of blood has been sent to the proper muscle, which has gone through the process of contracting and is benefited by the training; it was what we call an act of NN practising. ~The closest connection exists between sensation and motion, and between thought and action. When such connections have once been established they remain _united for life time, for the nerve cells as well as the muscular tissue have the power to retain and to revive former activities. ‘‘Nothing that enters the mind is really ever lost’? (Dr. Pierre Janet). Not only can ~ such unions between mind and motion be recalled voluntarily at any time, but they will even appear involuntarily. All that is necessary is that the stimulus _be the same; the reaction and the discharge will fol- ‘low ‘automatically.

Such established connections are called nerve-motor units, or nerve-motor processes. [hey are formed whether they are correct or incorrect; the wrong connection remains just as faithfully registered as the right one, for the physical process is always the same; only strength and duration are changeable and dif- _ferent i in each different action.

Practising i is forming nerve-motor units. A measure once practised wrongly is a combination of wrong nerve-motor units; and these will ALWays appear as wrong whenever recalled., If it has been practised right the correct version will appear. Neither nerve cell nor muscle know what is right or wrong, for they can act only according to the stimulus received.

Every musical phrase demands execution, either real or imaginary. Every technical phrase represents a collection or sequence of single nerve-motor units, combined to larger and ever larger units. All forms of fundamental piano technic, scales, arpeggios, etc., represent nerve-motor units. Once established correctly these will always be at the player’s disposal. The more of such nerve-motor units a player has established the more accomplished he will be.

| SILENT PRACTICE |

The greatest obstacle to the progress of children is the inability to concentrate,\to fix their attention for any length of time, with thé result that the forming of correct nerve-motor units is often very difficult, if not impossible. Again the ‘ear’ too often assumes the leadership in prompting the fingers; so long as the music does not sound absolutely bad or inharmonious it is all right and passes.

For all these evils silent practice forms an excellent remedy. Above all it promotes concentration, for the ‘human mind is no man’s fool!” It is said that Paganini practised most of the time silently. Mischa Elman, asked about his method of practising, said that when he came to an extremely troublesome place, he stopped — actual playing, and thought phrasing, fingering and bowing out; then he resumed practice and always mastered the place i in shorter time. —

Fifteen minutes of silent practice will make a deeper, clearer and more lasting impression upon mind and muscle than an hour of sounding the keys. |The benefit is due to the fact that the combinations (nerve-motor units) formed with a mind fully concentrated upon the matter and not lured away by the seductive sound of music are correct and can never be erased./ Students who spend time in trains and cars can make excellent use of silent practice. For those who are skeptical I recommend the following little experiment: Hold your arm out straight, imagining that you have a revolver in your hand, and act as if you were aiming. Then pull the imaginary trigger in your mind but without moving the second finger. You will feel the motion without having really made it.

Scientifically this fact is proved by an experiment with a plethysmograph. This instrument consists of a glass tube filled with water, in which the arm is inserted. ‘This registers every swelling of the arm, and shows an increase of blood supply, resulting from contracting a muscle in an imaginary action as well as when the action is carried out in space. The benefit of silent practice therefore is physically the same and from an efficiency point, superior. For it is not interfered with by other sensations, and therefore makes a clearer and more lasting impression. The Virgil Clavier or any other silent keyboard is especially adapted for this purpose. See “My System of Practising Violin and Piano,’ by Goby Eberhardt, Dresden, 1907. 2 vols. (Carl Fischer).

PERCEPTIONS

“Our senses are the doors through which the outside world enters into our consciousness,’ and every second of life, anything which stimulates the senses, ear, eye or skin, is reported to the different nerve centers providing the nerves, the means of communication, are in healthy working condition.

Such a sensation is called a perception if it is strong enough to be noticed; for, fortunately, we do not become conscious of all sensations entering the brain. Should this perception arouse other previously experienced and conserved perceptions and associate itself with them we then experience an apperception.

Sensation is a purely physical process, perception one of consciousness and attention, and apperception one of memory and consequently of knowledge and education.

Suppose that a child who has never been taught music is shown a staff with a note upon it. According to its limited experience this note will be a round black spot and the staff will be five lines. In the child’s mind this might become associated with the image of a fence, something he has seen before. The process could go no further until he has been told that this black spot is the symbol of a tone which corresponds with a certain key, and that whenever such a black spot is found on another line it represents a different tone and a different key. Whenever such arrangement is again presented to the eye the mere sensation upon the physical organ will profit by the before mentioned

= ———— brain process and experience (education, knowledge) and hereafter it will always be “notes” and a “‘staft’’ and furthermore “key and tone.” Associations have been formed which remain inseparable forever, the sensation has become an idea, and the child has learned to discriminate between ‘‘dots.”’