Universal manual of ready reference : antiquities, history, geography, biography, government, law, politics, industry, invention, science, religion, literature, art, education and miscellany

Prefatory Note

NO class of books exceeds in usefulness and range of interest that class known as reference books. Such books are demanded by almost every human pursuit, and are daily called into requisition by multitudes of people of varying tastes and acquirements — in office, library, home, school-room, work-shop — wherever, in fact, human progress and achievement go on.

No apology, therefore, need be expressed for the nature of the present volume. A zealous effort has been made to fill its pages with important, well-selected, readable, up-to-date information, in concise form and untechnical language, adapted to the capacity of the average reader, and bearing upon topics of every-day concern as well as those of more remote though of no less vital interest. In scope and character the matter of the book is encyclopedic ; but its divisions and alphabetical arrangement are such that its contents become readily accessible to the reader or consulter with a minimum amount of search. The first Book, taken as a whole, gives a more or less complete view of the entire field of knowledge. Such a view is very essential in following out any particular branch of study or line of reading, or as a matter of general information. The phonetic spelling to be found throughout the historical parts should also be helpful.

It is believed that an intelligent use of the volume will prove its best commendation ; and in this belief it is submitted to the judgment of the public.

Table Of Contents

BOOK I The Field of Knowledge Concise articles on the chief branches of human knowledge — fine arts, history, languages, law, literature, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, politics, physical science, biological science, technology, and theology

^Esthetics; Algebra: Anatomy; Archaeology ; Architecture; Arithmetic; Astronomy; Bacteriology; Biology; Bookkeeping; Botany; Calculus; Chemistry; Cosmogony; Drawing; Embryology; Entomology; Ethics; Ethnology; Geodesy; Geography; Geology; Geometry; Government; Grammar; Histology; History; Ichthyology ; Law; Literature; Logic; Materia medica; Mathematics; Mechanics; Medicine; Metallurgy; Metaphysics; Meteorology; Mineralogy; Music; Navigation; Neurology ; Painting; Pathology; Pharmacology; Philology; Philosophy; Physiology; Physics; Political Economy; Psychology; Quaternions; Rhetoric; Sculpture; Sociology ; Statistics ; Surgery ; Surveying -.Technology ; Theology ; Writing ; Zoology.

Book II

A survey of the world, its continents, peoples, countries, states, races, governments, cities, mountains, rivers, oceans, lakes, wars, battles, councils, antiquities, etc.

Abyssinia ; Acropolis ; jEolians ; Africa ; Alaska ; Alexandria ; Alhambra ; Alps ; Amazon ; American Civil War ; America ; Amphictyonic Council ; Andes ; Antioch ; Appalachian; Appian Way; Arabia; Argentine Republic; Arizona; Armada; Armenia; Asia; Athens; Augsburg; Australia; Austria; Avignon; Aztecs; Babylon; Bagdad; Baltic Sea; Balaklava; Bastille; Beloochistan; Belgium; Belgae; Benares; Berlin; Bethlehem; Black Forest; Blenheim; Bohemia; Bokhara; Bombay; Borneo; Boston; Bosphorus; Brazil; Britain; Buenos Ayres; Bunker Hill; Caledonia;

1U TABLE OF CONTENTS

Caesarea; California; Canada; Carthage; Castile; Ceuta; Chaldea; Chili; China; China-Japanese War; Chivalry; Colombia; Corinth; Connecticut; Cordova; Copenhagen; Constantinople; Commune; Crecy; Crusades; Cuba; Curfew; Damascus Danube; Dead Sea; Delhi; Dorians; Druids; Dublin; East India Company; Edom Egypt; England; Esquimeau; Essenes; Europe; Fez; Finland; Florence; Florida Franks; France; French Revolution; Genoa; Gettysburg; Germany; Gibraltar Gypsy; Gladiators; Gordian Knot; Goths; Greece; Greenland; Gunpowder Plot Halifax; Hanseatic League; Hawaii; Hayti; Heidelberg; Hell Gate; Heptarchy Heraldry; Hittites; Hohenzollern ; Holland; Holy Alliance; Huguenot; Huns Iceland; India; Indiana; Iowa; Ireland; Iroquois; Italy; Janizaries; Japan; Jerusalem; Jews; Juggernaut; Killarney; Lapland; Liberia; London; Long Parliament; Macedonia; Madrid; Malays; Manila; Mecca; Mediterranean Sea; Merovingians; Mexico; Middle Ages; Mississippi; Monaco; Mont Blanc; Moors; Mound Builders; Mummy; Naples; Nazareth; Negro; New Orleans; New York; Niagara; Nicaragua; Nile; Nobility; Norsemen; Nubia; Ohio; Oklahoma; Olympic Games; Oracle; Pampas; Paris; Pekin; Persia; Peru; Pharisees; Philippines; Picts; Pisa; Plebeian; Pompeii; Porto Rico; Praetorian Guards; Pragmatic Sanction; Prussia; Puritian; Reformation; Rhine; Rocky Mountains; Rome; Russia; Sadducees; Sahara; Salt Lake City; Santiago; Saracens; Scotland; Seven Years' War; Shepherd Kings; Sibyls; Slavery; Spain; Sparta; Star Chamber; States of the Church; Steppes; Suez; Sweden; Switzerland; Tarpeian; Thebes; Thermopylae; Thirty Years' War; Triple Alliance; Troy; Tudor; Turkey; Tyre; United States; Vandals; Venice; Versailles; Vikings; Virginia; Walloons; Washington; Waterloo; West Indies; White Mountains; Yellowstone Park Yosemite Valley; Zollverein; Zurich.

BOOK III Biography

The great rulers, potentates, warriors, statesmen, diplomats, painters, sculptors, composers, poets, prose writers, scientists, inventors, discoverers, publicists, philosophers, educators, geniuses, etc., of the world.

Abraham; Adamses; ^Eschylus; Agassiz; Agrippa; Akbar; Ethan Allen; Alexander the Great ; Amerigo Vespucci ; St. Andrew; Queen Anne; Mark Antony ; St. Thomas Aquinas; Aristotle; Arkwright; Arnold; Attila; St. Augustine; Jane Austen; Lord Bacon; Balboa; Balzac; Bancroft; Beauregard; Beecher; Beethoven; Benton; Bismarck; Bjornson; Blackstone; Blaine; Anne Boleyn; Bolivar; Rosa Bonheur ; Boone ; Bossuet ; Charlotte Bronte ; John Brown ; Bruce ; Buddha ; Bunyan ; Burke; Burns; Burr; Byron; Caesar; Calhoun; Calvin; Canova; Capet; Carlyle; Catherine II.; Catiline; St. Cecilia; Beatrice Cenci; Cervantes; Channing; Charlemagne ; Charles V. ; Chaucer ; Choate ; Cicero ; Clay ; Cleopatra ; Columbus ; Confucius ; Constantine; Cooper: Corday; Correggio; Cromwell; Cyrus the Great; Dante;

TABLE OF CONTENTS 11

Darwin; Davis; Demosthenes; Dickens; Dumas; "George Eliot"; Queen Elizabeth Emerson; Erasmus; Faraday; Farragut; Field; Franklin; Frederick the Great Froebel; Fulton; Galileo; Garfield; Garbaldi; Garrick; Girard; Gladstone; Goethe Goodyear; Grant; Gutenberg; Hamilton; Hannibal; Harvey; Hawthorne; Hegel Helmholtz; Heloise; Homer; Houston; Howard; Howe; Hugo; Humboldt; Hume Huxley; Hypatia; Irving; Isabella; Jackson; Jefferson; Jeremiah; Jesus; Joan of Arc; St. John; Dr. Johnson; Judas Iscariot; Justinian; Kant; Kepler; Kossuth; Krupp; Lafayette; Landseer; La Salle; Lee; Leo; Lincoln; Lind; Locke; Longfellow; Louis XIV.; Lowell; Luther; Macaulay; Maccabees; McKinley; Mary, Queen of Scots; Maria Theresa; Marie Antoinette; Marshall; Maximilian; Michael Angelo; Milton; Mohammed; Moltke; Monroe; Moody; Morse; Moses; Mozart; Murillo; Napoleon I.; Nelson; Nero; Newman; Newton; Paine; Palissy; Parkman; Pascal; Pasteur; St. Paul; Dom Pedro; Penn; Pestalozzi; St. Peter; Peter the Great; Pharaoh ; Phidias ; Pilate ; Pitt ; Plato ; Plutarch ; Pocahontas ; Pompey ; The Popes ; Prescott; Ptolemy; Raleigh; Raphael; Recamier; Reed; Rembrandt; Renan; Residences and Tombs of Distinguished Persons; Revere; Richelieu; Roland; Romanoff; Rousseau; Rubens; Ruskin; Saladin; Salisbury; Samson; Sappho; Schiller; Scott; Servetus; Seward; Shakespeare; Sheridan; Sherman; Socrates; Solomon; Standish; Stowe; Sumner; Swedenborg; Tell; Tennyson; Thackeray; Thorwaldsen; Titian; Tudor; Tyndal; Van Buren; Van Dyck; Queen Victoria; Virgil; Voltaire; Wagner; Washington; Watt; Webster; Wellington; Wesley; Whitney; Wiseman; Woolsey; Wycliffe; Xerxes; Brigham Young; Zoroaster;

Book IV

A digest of commercial law, legal forms, political history, American and European politics, historical, political and financial statistics, governmental policy, economics, and general civic information.

Abolitionists; Agency; American Whigs; Annexations; Arbitration; Army; Balance of Trade; Bank of the United States; Bankruptcy Law; Bi-metallism ; Cabinet; Centre of Population; Checks; Civil Service; Committees; Common Carriers; Communism and Socialism; Confederate States; Congress; Constitution; Contracts ; Copyright Law ; Customs Duties; Declaration of Independence; Deeds; Democratic Party; Diplomatic Service; Emancipation Proclamation; Exemption Laws; The Executive; Federal Party; State Flowers; Free Trade; Governments «f the World ; Government Salary List ; Grand Army ; Grangers ; High License ; Historic Treaties ; Holidays ; House of Representatives ; Immigration ; Incomes of Rulers; Indebtedness of Nations; Indian Question; Inheritance; Inns and Innkeepers; Interest Laws, and Statutes of Limitation; Internal Revenue; International Law; Interstate Commerce Law; Judiciary; Department of Justice:

12 TABLE OF CONTEXTS

Kings and Queens of England; Ku-klux Klan; Labor Legislation; American Federation of Labor; Landlord and Tenant; Legal Forms; Legislature; Lobby; Local Option; Marriage and Divorce Laws; Monroe Doctrine; Mottoes of States; Mational Banking System; Naturalization; Navy Department; Nihilism; Nominating Conventions; Notes; Parents and Children; Parliamentary Law; British Parliament; Patent Office Proceedure; Passport Regulations; Pension Laws; Postage; Postoffice Department; Presidents; Prohibition; Property Rights of Married Women; Protection; Qualifications for Voting; Reciprocity; Reconstruction; Republican Party; Secession; Senate; Silver Question; Single Tax; Speaker of the House of Representatives ; State Department ; States of the Union ; State and Territorial Governments; Law of Subscriptions; Woman Suffrage; Tariffs; Tammany; Trade Marks; Treasury Department; Unit Rule; Vice-President of the United States; Wars of the United States; Wealth of Nations; Whig Party; White House; Wills.

BOOK V Art, Education, Religion, Literature

Accounts of religions, works of art, architecture, literary allusions, phrase and fable, educational and literary topics.

Abbreviations; Adam and Eve; Alexandrian Library; Familiar Allusions; Alphabet; Animal Worship; Apostles; Art Schools; Associated Press; Athanasian Creed; Bible; Education of Blind; Boxers; Buddhism; Cathedrals; Christianity; Christian Association ; Christian Science ; Church of England ; Colosseum ; Colossus ; Compulsory School Laws; Confucianism; Foreign Words and Phrases; French Academy; French Renaissance; Greek Church; Hades; Hindus, Sacred Books of; Holy Coat; Illiteracy of Nations; Jewish Religion; Jewish Temple; Koran; Latter- Day Saints or Mormons; Oneida Community; Oracles; Pagodas; Palace of the Caesars; Panthenon of Rome; Parsees; Celebrated Paintings; Portland Vase Public Schools; Pyramids; Reformation; Roman Catholic Church; St. Nicholas Salvation Army; Sanhedrim; Scriptural Measures; Septuagint; Shintuism; Sinai Smithsonian Institute; Sunday; Taj Mahal; Theosophy; Unitarians; United States Naval Academy ; Universalists ; University Extension ; The Vulgate ; Westminster Palace: Windsor Castle.

Book I. Aristotle Teaching Alexander The Great

Education (Pd-u-kd'slulu). [From. L. educo, I bring up.] In its most extended sense, the art of developing and cultivating the physical, intellectual, and moral faculties. Physical education includes all that relates to the organs of sensation and the muscular and nervous system. Intellectual education develops and improves the powers of the understanding. Moral education comprehends the various modes of cultivating and regulating the affections, and forming right ideas as to the relation of man to man. In every part of each branch of true education there should be a double end in view, namely, the increase of knowledge, and the increase of skill. Each study may be made the object of thought, or the object of action; in the one case it is pursued as a science; in the other case as an art.

The following outline indicates the chief branches of knowledge and their principal sub-divisions : Fine Arts: Architecture; Drawing;

Music; Painting; Sculpture. History.

Language: Grammar; Orthography;

Philology; Rhetoric; Writing. Law.

Literature.

Mathematics: Algebra; Arithmetic; Bookkeeping; Calculus; Geometry; Navigation; Quaternions; Surveying; Trigonometry.

Medicine : Anatomy; Dentistry; Dermatology ; Etiology ;Gynacology ; Hygiene ; Laryngology; Materia Medica; Neurology; Obstetrics; Ophthalmology; Orthopedics; Otology; Pathology; Pediatrics; Psychiatry; Surgery; Therapeutics.

Philosophy: ^Esthetics; Cosmology; Ethics; Logic; Metaphysics; Pedagogy; Psychology.

Politics: Diplomacy; Finance; Government; Political Economy; Sociology; Statistics.

Physical Science: Archaeology; Astronomy ; Chemistry ; Geography ; Geology ; Mechanics ; Metallurgy ; Meteorology; Mineralogy; Physics; Physiography.

Biological Science: Anthropology; Bacteriology; Biology; Botany; Embryology ; Entomology ; Ethnology ; Histology; Ichthyology; Physiology; Zoology.

Technology.

Theology.

./Esthetics (es-thct'iks). [Gr. czsthetikos, adapted to perception.] That branch of philosophical investigation which relates to and includes all things pertaining to the Beautiful, in literature and the fine arts. It is intimately related to sentiment, which links together with feeling the different parts of a composition. All art, considered as imitation of nature, is affected by the same relations, and subject to the same laws, which govern nature herself; and if it. could be satisfactorily proved that those rules of art which are the result of reason were necessarily connected with sensation, it might be possible to lay down laws from which the principles of art might be satisfactorily deduced. As an illustration of this, in architecture we might take the rule which forbids the position of a heavy mass over a void, when it may appear to have no ostensible and immediate support; in which case it might almost seem possible to connect the unpleasant sensation produced on the mind with the rules of reason; but in architecture it is difficult to conceive how this could be effected without recurring to primitive types, and on them pursuing the reasoning into all its details. In the other arts it might not, perhaps, be so difficult to establish a set of rules, inasmuch as the immediate type is nature herself. The Germans have written much on the doctrine of aesthetics; it would, however, seem that the fundamental principles of taste in all the arts depend on the laws of gravitation, and their balances, equipoise and counterpoise; the necessary resultants whereof are symmetry and proportion.

The essence of the polite arts lies in expression, or the power of representation, whether by lines, words, or other media, and that expression arises from an exercise of the inventive faculty; their end being the production of pleasurable sensations; thus being distinguished from the end sought in the sciences, whose object is to produce instruction and utility. And here we are to observe, that though in some of the polite arts, such as eloquence, poetry, and architecture, the end may be to instruct, or to be applicable to useful objects, yet that the expression on which they depend brings them within the laws which govern the fine arts. The object of the fine arts is beauty, which is the result of all the various perfections whereof an object is susceptible: such perfections arising, first, from the agreeable proportions between the several parts. of the same object; and, second, from the proportions between each part and the object taken as a whole.

Genius, or the power to invent, is the faculty of the mind by which it is enabled to conceive and express its conceptions, and is, consequently, necessary to the production of beauty; while taste, or the natural sensation of a mind refined by art, is the guide to genius in discerning, embracing, and producing beauty. Hence a general theory of the polite arts must be founded on a knowledge of all that they contain truly agreeable and beautiful. They are usually said to include eloquence, poetry, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. By some, dancing has been added to the number.

Algebra (til' je-brah) . [Ar. al, the, and gebr, resolution.] A science the object of which is to abridge and generalize the resolution of all questions relating to quantities. The symbols it employs are of three kinds: those of quantity, known or unknown, which consist of ordinary numbers and letters of the alphabet; those of operations, several of which are borrowed from arithmetic, as + , — , X, -5-, \/ , etc.; and mere abbreviations for ordinary words. The combinations of these symbols according to fixed laws led to algebraical expressions or formula?, in which actual computations are indicated rather than performed.

The same fundamental operations, commonly called "the four simple rules," of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, form the basis of algebra as they do of arithmetic. Thus, if a stands for the number 6, and b for the number 2, then a + b will be equal to 8; a — b will equal 4 ; a X b, generally written ab, will equal 12; and a + b, frequently written £, will equal 3. We may also perform the same operations with symbols of whose values we are ignorant, provided they are all the same; thus, it is plain that 150 + 50 equal 20a, and that 150 — 50 equal 10a, whatever may be the numeral value of a, but the relation a + b or a — b can not be expressed in any simpler form so long as their values are unknown. Accordingly, expressions which, like the former, involve the same symbolism, and admit of being added or subtracted, are called in algebra like or similar terms; when, like the latter, this is not the case, they are said to be unlike or dissimilar terms. If a number is multiplied by itself in arithmetic, the product is termed the square of that number, and the opposite relationship is expressed by saying that one number is the square root of another; thus, 9 is the square of 3, but 3 is the square root of 9; and the terms cube and cube root, fourth power and fourth root, etc., are employed to in-j dicate repeated products of a number by itself, and the opposite relations;

thus, 27 is the cube of 3, because 3X3X3 = 27, and, conversely, 3 is the cube root of 27; 81 is the fourth power of 3 , because 3X3X3X3 = 81, and so on. The same expressions are used to indicate the same relations of symbols to one another in algebra; but, in the absence of their numerical values, a figure called an index, because it indicates the number of times that the symbol has been multiplied by itself, is written over against it; thus, x5 means xXxXxXxXx; and similarly, the fifth root of x is written j — the sign \/ being known as the radix or radical sign. The operation of multiplication in algebra is effected by adding the indices when the symbol is the same, or by simply writing them next to each other when there are different symbols; thus, a3Xa2=a3, a3 Xb- = a3b2, 2a2bX3abc = 6a3b2c, and so on. In the operation of division, the index of the divisor is subtracted from that of the dividend when the same symbol occurs in both, but when the symbols are different the dividend is usually placed over the divisor in the form of a fraction ; thus, 6aB + 2a* = 3a3 , ab3-¥bc = ^-.

An important department of algebra is the solving of what are called equations. In an equation, the relation of equality is known to exist between two quantities, either or both of which involves an unknown symbol; and to arrive at the numerical value of the unknown symbol is the object which the calculator has in quest. Thus 3*+ 2 = 2#+ 7 is an equation, arid the numerical value of the unknown symbol x, in order that 2.V+7 should be equal to 3.T+2, is 5, when both sides of the equation become equal to 17. This value of x is termed the root of the equation, and it is said to satisfy the equation, because, when written in the place of x\ both sides of the equation become numerically equal. It may be found by subtracting 2X+2 from each side of the equation when we have x = 5 ; but the usual mode of procedure, in solving an equation, is to collect all the unknown symbols on one side and the numbers on the other side (the rule to be observed in transferring a quantity from one side to the other being to change the sign of + into — , and vice versa). Thus, in the above equation, we should have $x — 2X = 7 — 2 , or a- =5.

Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about 170 A. D.; he is said to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900; and into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebraical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of symbols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637.

Anatomy (a-iiat'o-mc). [Gr. anatome, from anatcmno. I cut up.] In its widest sense, it signifies the dissection of organized bodies, with a view to discover their structure, and the connection of the parts. .4. is the basis of Physiology, the object of which is the discovery of function; and both form the indispensable basis of medicine. The object of Comparative A. is the discovery of the differences in structure and organization which obtain throughout the animal kingdom, from the simplest forms to the most complex, and from the earliest dawn of life on the planet to the present epoch. Descriptive A. is concerned with healthy structure, and is the necessary basis of Pathological A., which is concerned with diseased structures.

The anatomy of animals is usually divided into two distinct branches of study, viz., Human A., which deals with the structure of the human species onlv, and Comparative A., which treats of the structure of other animals, and compares them with one another and with man. The body of every animal consists of three main divisions, which are as a rule readily distinguishable, viz., head, trunk, and limbs: in addition, to these, vertebrate animals, or those possessing a backbone, are distinguished by an internal bony skeleton. In man, the head consists of two parts, the cranium, or brain-case, and the face; so also the trunk is composed of two parts, the thorax, or chest, and the abdomen, or belly; the limbs are similarly divided into the anterior limbs, or arms, and the posterior limbs, or legs. The cranium, or cavity in which the brain is lodged, is constructed of a number of flat bones united by sutures, so called because they resemble the seams of a garment. These bones are the frontal bone, or bone of the forehead; the occipital bone, at the base of the hinder part of the head; the two parietal bones, on either side of the middle line; and the two temporal bones, or bones of the temples. The face consists of the jaws, termed respectively the upper and lower maxilla; the nasal bone; the orbits, in which the eyes are Ldged. The thorax, or chest, is the cavity - diich contains the heart and lungs; it i: separated from the abdomen by a muscular partition termed the diaphragm, or midriff, which thus forms its floor; at the back it is bounded by a portion of the vertebral column, at the sides by the ribs, or coster, and in the front by the sternum, or breast-bone.

The abdomen contains, besides the stomach and intestines, the liver, the pancreas, the spleen, and the kidneys; the only part of the bony framework which belongs to it is a portion of the vertebral column. The two pairs of limbs are attached to an upper and lower girdle of bones respectively, by means of what are called ball-and-socket joints, which admit of their being moved in any direction. The upper girdle is composed of a clavicle, or collar-bone, on either side in front; a scapula, or shoulder-blade, on either side at the back; and portions of the sternum and the vertebral column. The lower girdle, or pelvis, consists of two massive bones, termed the pelvic bones. The anterior limbs, or arms, consist each of an arm-bone, or humerus; a fore-arm, containing two bones, the ulna on the inner and the radius on the outer side of it; eight small carpal bones, which go to form the carpus, or wrist; five metacarpal bones, which form the palm of the hand; and the phalanges, or finger-bones, of which there are fourteen, three to each finger, except the thumb, which has only two. The posterior limbs, or legs, consist each of a femur, or thigh-bone; two bones of the leg. the tibia, or shin-bone, and the fibula, or splint-bone; seven tarsal bones, which go to form the tarsus, or ankle; five metatarsal bones, which form the instep of the foot; and the fourteen phalanges of the toes, three to each of the smaller toes, and two to the great toe. The socket into which the head of the humerus fits is known as the glenoid cavity; and that into which the femur fits as the acetabulum. The vertebral column, or back-bone, is made up of thirty-three bones, placed in succession one over the other with cartilage between. Seven of these go to form the neck, and are known as cervical vertebra;; twelve more to form the back of the thorax, and to which the twelve ribs are attached, called dorsal vertebras; five more in the region of the abdomen, known as lumbar vertebra-; while five are united together into a single bone called the sacrum. and four more into another bone termed . the coccyx. All the bones of the body are united to their neighbors by means of ligaments, and have muscles attached to them by means of tendons, whereby they are moved upon the mechanical principle of levers. The muscles are masses of red flesh which by their contraction move the bones; they are thickest at the middle point, and taper at both ends; one end of a muscle is always attached to a fixed bone, which is termed its origin, and the other end to a movable bone, which is termed its insertion. The muscles in man are very numerous, and overlie each other in all sorts of positions; two of the most prominent are the biceps muscle, which moves the fore-arm, and the muscle of the calf of the leg, called the gastrocnemius muscle. A . also deals with the arrangement and positions of the various blood-vessels and nerves.

Vegetable A. treats of the internal structure of plants. The stem and branches of an ordinary forest tree consist of three parts, viz., pith, wood, and bark; while the leaves are made up of bundles of fibres, the so-called veins, with masses of cells filling up the spaces or interstices between them.

The human body was studied by Aristotle about 350 B. C, and its structure was made part of the philosophical investigations of Plato and Xenophon; it became a branch of medical education under Hippocrates about 420 B. C. Erasistratus and Herophilus first dissected the human form, and may be regarded as the fathers of anatomy ; it is said that they practiced upon the bodies of living criminals about 300 and 293 B. C. Galen, who died 193 A. D., was a great anatomist. In England the schools were long supplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and until 1832 the bodies of executed murderers were ordered for dissection. Pope Boniface VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 1297. The first anatomical plates, designed by Titian, were employed by Vesalius about 1538. The discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680.

Anthropology (du-thro-pol'o-jc). [Gr. anthropos, a man, and logos, a discourse.] The science which has man for its object. It undertakes to describe and classify the races of man, to point out their similarities and differences, to study their manners and capabilities, and to determine their relationship. Since the races of men, notwithstanding their differences, form an entire group, anthropologists examine, that group as a whole, and endeavor to ascertain its position in the scale of organic nature, its relations to other groups, and its common characters, whether under an anatomical, a physiological, or an intellectual point of view. The laws which govern the maintenance or change of these characters, the influence of external conditions, the phenomena of hereditary transmission, and the effect on the offspring of intermarriage of nearly related persons, or of persons of different races, are studied, as well as the great subject of the history of humanity through the stages of its development.

Arithmetic (a-rltli'me-tik). [Gr. arithmos, number.] The science of numbers, or that portion of mathematics concerned with the properties of n ambers. Numbers are represented either by names or by symbols; arithmetic deals only with the latter. The symbols which we employ to represent numbers are ten in all, viz., 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o, and by certain combinations of these symbols any number may be represented.

Our present system of notation, called the Denary or Decimal system on account of the recurrence of the number ten, is the one universally adopted among civilized nations. According to this system, the value of a symbol is increased tenfold, hundredfold, thousandfold, and so on, according as it is succeeded by one, two, three, or more symbols; thus 5 indicates five units, 53 indicates five tens together with three units, 537 indicates five hundreds, three tens, and seven units, and so forth. It is not, however, by any means necessary that such a system should be adopted; indeed, many nations, the Romans for example, have used a different notation. But, whatever system of notation be employed, all arithmetic is ultimately reduced to the four operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. We may even reduce these still further, for multiplication is only an abbreviated form of addition, namely that of repeatedly adding the same number to itself; as is also division an abbreviated form of subtraction, namely that of repeatedly subtracting one number from another. Again, in arithmetic, we are not altogether concerned with whole numbers, or integers, but sometimes with a part or parts of a whole, called a fraction. We shall illustrate this best by a diagram ; thus —

I ! ' I

Take the line a b, and divide it into five equal parts, then each part represents one-fifth of the whole line; a c, in which there are two such parts, represents two-fifths; and so a d, in which there are four, represents four-fifths. These fractions or parts of the line a b, are respectively denoted symbolically thus, ^, f, f , and when so written are termed vulgar fractions ; the lowerfigurein each case being called the denominator, which tells us the number of equal parts into which the whole or unite has been divided; while the figure above the line is called the numerator, and tells us how many of those equal parts have been taken to form the fraction. Fractions are susceptible of addition, subtraction, etc., just as whole numbers, though the methods of performing these operations are slightly different. In order to add two fractions, or subtract one fraction from another, we must replace them by equivalent fractions having the same common denominator, and then add or subtract the numerators of the equivalent fractions. Thus, suppose we wish to add 5 to § ; we know that J = ft, and |—M ; now ft + t* = tt.whfch is therefore the sum of the two fractions. Similarly, J - J = M - ft = ft. To multiply fractions together, the product of the numerators is taken to form the numerator of the residting product, and the product of the denominators to form the resulting denominator ; thus § X ?- = £f . In division of fractions, we simply invert the denominator and proceed as in multiplication ; thus, § -=- ft = § X-V- = || or \\. A fraction which has for its denominator one of the powers of ten is called a decimal fraction (or more simply a decimal), in distinction from a vulgar fraction, which has already been described. But it is not necessary to write the denominator of the decimal fraction, as a method of notation is used by which we can express the value of the denominator in every case; for example, '3 stands for ft, '35 for T3ft or (ft!)2- '345 fortVft or frVyj ; the figures following the point ■ , called the decimal point, being those forming the numerator of the fraction in each case, while the denominator has always as many ciphers as there are figures to the right of the decimal point. Decimals are subject to the four fundamental operations we have mentioned, and precisely in the -same manner as whole numbers; indeed this system, for the sake of its simplicity, is almost entirely adopted by modern nations in the various scientific calculations.