A universal geography, in four parts: historical, mathematical, physical, and political

Front matter

UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY,

IN FOUR PARTS

HISTORICAL, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AOT) POLITICAL.

Preface

The following pages present, for the first time, it is believed, in a generally accessible form, a combined view of Historical, Mathematical, Physical, and Political Geography. The writer has endeavoured to condense, from a great variety of scattered sources, as large a quantity of matter as possible into the smallest compass consistent with perspicuity ; his object having been to give the most comprehensive general information, with those minuter details which claim attention on account of their interest or importance. In the PoUtical section, he has attempted to convey a definite idea of the natural features of each particular country, in harmony with the view expressed by the late Master of Rugby School in the motto on the title-page. Considerable use has been made in this department of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. The work is intended for the general Home reader; for the Emigrant who may wish to take to the far bounds of civilized hfe, a cheap and portable compendium of information relative to countries, with reference to which his means of knowledge will necessarily be limited; and for the use of

Colleges and Schools, to which it-will be further adapted c2 by Exercises, whicli may be had separately, or bound with the volume. While treating of a branch of secular knowledge, of high importance, and continually becoming more so, by an extending foreign commerce, and the more frequent intercommunication of distant nations, care has been taken to lead the reader to the " wisdom which cometh from above," whose " ways are ways of pleasantness, and all" whose " paths are peace."

Norwood,

Chapter I. Geography Op The Ascients

Earliest geograpliical records — occupancy of the globe — the world as known to Moses— geography of the Jews — Phoenician mercantile adventures — Carthaginian navigation — Grecian geography — early Roman conquests illustrative of the geography of the known world — Ptolemy's " Universal Geography"— knowledge of the globe in later ages consecrated to Christian effort for the CTangelization of mankind pages 1 — 19

Chapter II. Geography Op The Middle Ages

Agents in geographical discovery— Anscar — king Alfred — works of Orosius, Wulfstan, and Ohtere — discovery of Iceland — of Greenland — of the American continent previously to Columbus — Scandinavians — Arab geographers — European discovery — John de Piano Carpini, William de Rubruquis, and Marco Polo — other principal European travellers and their routes — modern maritime discover)' by the Portuguese — Vasco de Gama — by Columbus — various exploring expeditions— Sebastian Cabot, Cortereal, Bastidas, Pinzon. and Cabral — inland discovery — Vasco Munes de Balboa — endeavours to find a passage to the great ocean — Juan Diaz de Soils — Sebastian Cabot — Magellan's discovery of a communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans —sphericity of the earth first demonstrated— Sebastian del Cano— lawless aggression and the retributive justice of Providence pages 19 — 36

Chapter III. Modern Geography

Some of the inland regions of America explored — various expeditions under Cortes, Pizarro, Verrazano, Cartier, and Ulloa — second circumnavigation of the globe, by Sir Francis Drake- third, by Cavendish — fourth, by Van Xoort — chimera of a north-east passage to India — expeditions under Sir Hugh Willoughby, Burroughs, Pet and Jackman, and Barentz — endeavours to find a north-west passage — voyages of Frobisher, Davis, Hudson, Burton, Bylot and Baffin — researches of Spanish navigators — discovery of Australia by the Dutch — Schouten and Lemaire — Tasman's discovery of Van Dieraen s Land. New Zealand, and other islands — inland discovery promoted by colonization — the pilgrim fathers, the French, Dutch, Swedes, Jesuit missionaries—correction of maps, by Hondius, Peirsac, Picard and Delahire — settlements in Greenland, Hans Egede, Moravian brethren — Russian discovery under Behring — Loshkin's discovery of the east coast of Nova Zembla— survey of the Falkland Islands by Byron— Wallis's discoveries—

Tl CONTEXTS.

Carteret first to sail through St. George's Channel— Terra Auslralis Incognita — DalrjTnple — primary object of Cook's first voyage — his various discoveries — second voyage— idea of a southern continent abandoned — third voyage — discovery of the Sandwich Islands — discoveries of Perouse and Vancouver — interior regions of North America — researches of Heame, Mackenzie, Lewis, and Clark — interior of South America — researches of Humboldt and Bonpland — interior of Northern Africa — researches of Bruce, the Jesuit Missionaries, Browne, and African Association — the Niger discovered by Mungo Park — its identity with the Guorra proved by Landers— discoveries of Denham and Clapperton, Laing, Cailhe, Burchell, Campbell, Dr. A. Smith, and Capt. Alexander— extended information respecting Australia — Bass and Flinders —Captain King — old question of a north-west passage revived — expeditions of Ross and Parry — adventures of Franklin, Beachey, Captain Back — termination of the eastern and western continent— interesting results of discovery in the high latitudes of the southern hemisphere — Smith, Bellinghausen, Weddell, Biscoe, Balleny — Government expeditions — Captain Dumont D'Urville, Sir J. C. Ross— much to be discovered — discovery of the mountain Kilimandjaro, in East Africa, by Rev. Mr. Rebraann— of the lake Ngami, in South Africa, by Rev. D. Livingstone— Dr. Leichardt and Australian enterprise^Sir John Franklin — geographical discoverers corroborating the fidelity of God's word as regards the unity and perfection of his nature and the universal degeneracy of man pages 36—56

PART IL MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY.

I. FORM, MAGKITUDE. AKD MOTlOy,"! OP THE EARTH.

Sphericity of the earth — true figure and dimensions — position in space— motionsi of the earth — day and night— seasons pages 5? — 66

It. MATHEMATICAL DIVISIONS OF TRB EARTH.

Great Circles: The equator, the horizon, the meridian, the ecliptic, and the two colures. Small Circles : The tropics, the polar circles, and the parallels of latitude. Zones — climates — table of successive climates differing by half hours from the equator to the polar circles ; by months, from the polar circles to the poles— latitude — longitude — table of first or prime meridians of longitude, employed by different nations— table, showing the length of one degree of longitude for every degree of latitude in geographical and English miles — determination of longitude— ampliiscii — heteroscii — periscii — antseci — periaeci — antipodes — antipodal places pages 66 — 76

III. REPRESENTATIONS OF THE EARTH.

Globes — maps — table, showing the thirty-two points of the mariner's compass stable of itinerary and linear measures reduced approximately to a common denomination — table of measures equal to one degree of the equator.

IV. DIVISIONS OF TIME.

Year$ : Gregorian reform of the calendar — years in which the reformed calendar was adopted in different countries- length of the year adapted to the law of animal and vegetable nature. Months : Our nomenclature of the muntht: derived from the Romans— lunar cycle— golden number. Weeks : French, Roman, Saxon, and British nomenclature. Days: Time» at which different nations have begun, or begin, the civil day — the cycle and human constitution are nicely adjusted — regular succession and uniform duration of the inter- ▼als of day and night, etc., an evidence of Divine faithfulness : pages 82— Sy

CONTENTS.

Part III. Physical Geography

BefinitionE page 90

Extent and distribution. Continents : Eastern and western continents — their extreme limits — area — maritime coast-line — greatest elevation — greatest depression— general features of similarity and discordance of the two continents. Islands: Australia, Rockal — semi-islands, St. Michael's Mount — continental islands— oceanic islands— archipelagos— single islands, St. Helena, Ascension Islands— Solitary Islands mostly of volcanic origin. Mountains : Insulated mountains— chains — secondary ranges — mountain systems of the two continents — the SUla mountain— table, .showing the length of principal chains, with their greatest height — mountain-knots — configuration of mountains— table of the heights above the sea of the principal mountains of the globe — mountains of the torrid zone — table of the heights above the sea of some remarkable inhabited sites — heights where man can find no local habitation— distance at which mountains have been seen — advantages of mountains. Table-Lands: Mean elevation of the liighest table-lands. Valleys: Longitudinal and transverse passes. Plains: Heaths — steppes — deserts. Plains of the New World : llanos — pampas— selvas — savannahs, or prairies. Clefts and Caverns: Simple cavities— chambered caverns— natural shafts — fissures. Snow mountains and glaciers: Drift, sliding, creeping, and ice avalanches — extraordinar>' elfect of an ice avalanche in the canton of Berne. Volcanoes : Kirauea — active and intermittent craters — Stroraboli — Etna and Vesuvius — extinct volcanoes — renewal of the activity of the dormant volcano of Cosigiiina— number and distribution of volcanoes— some of the iirincipal volcanoes, with their heights — volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes : Lima — movements nf the surface during an earthquake — noises — effects — city of Caraccas— city of Conception — prognostics — area of concussion — earthquake of Lisbon — imager}' derived from earthquakes in the Scriptures pages 91 — 142

II. THE WATERS.

Chemical Composition .-—Hydrogen and oxygen — fresh and salt waters — mineralized forms. Temperature : General conclusions — the ocean — inland waters — thermal waters. Colour: The ocean— rivers— lakes. Springs: permanent and intermittent. Rivers: Their sources — basins — area of principal river basins — course of rivers — table of river windings — fall of rivers — fall of five British rivers, from data by A. Petermann, Esq., p.h.g.s. — table of celebrated waterfalls — termination of rivers— continental and oceanic rivers— furthei phenomena of rivers— the Mississippi, Amazon, the Nile, etc. Lakes: Salt lakes - area of principal lakes — elevations of lakes— physical diflerences — floating islands — subaqueous winds and other phenomena. The Ocean : Partial oceans and their branches — the Arctic ocean — the Atlantic— the Pacific — the Indian — the Antarctic — the bed of the ocean exhibits points of analogy with the surface of the dry land. Waves, Tides, and Currents : Causes — the ocean reflects the omnipotence of its Maker pages 12'J — 155

III. THE ATMOSPHERE.

Its constituents — its limit— weight — the barometer— the air colourless — blue sky. Winds : Law under which currents of air are ordinarily occasioned — trade winds^and and sea breezes — monsoons — variable winds — physical qualities — sirocco — solano— harmattan — khamsin — samoom — storms — whirlwinds— important ofiice of atmospheric currents in the economy of nature — favour international intercourse — mitigate climate. Moisture, Dew, Bain : Fogs and clouds. Snow and Hail — Climate : Regulated by diversity of circumstances—line of perpetual congelation. Optical Phenomena: Lightning— o«ror« toreales vel australes — the rainbow — parhelia — mirage pages 155 — 174

Vm CONTENTS.

IV. ORGANIC EXISTENCE.

Vegetables : — Station of plants — aquatic and terrestrial —habitation of plants — vegetation changes with the varied condition of climate — various natural agencies contribute to the ditfusion of vegetable productions — the currents of the ocean — the winds, and migratory birds— man a voluntary agent in effecting the same object — adaptation of food-plants to climate reflects the design of the all-bountiful Creator as to the dilfusion of the human family. Animals : Natural orders — diversity in the organizations of the animal kingdom — its wide diffusion — migrations — adaptation of animals to their respective localities. Man: Geographically diffused — capability of accommodation to diverse circumstances — stature — cranial conformation — colour — languages and dialects— linguistic families — proofs of the identity of the human family — causes of the diffusion of man over the globe — connection of physical with revealed truth pages 175 — 19^

PHYSICAL MAPS.

I. — Orographical Map of the World, showing the mountains, volcanoes, and

the physiognomy of the earth's surface page 96

Notes and explanations page 200

II. — Hydrographical Map of the World, showing the river-basins and ocean

currents page 132

Notes and explanations pages 201, 202

III. — Botanical Map of the World, showing the distribution of some of the

principal plants page 175

Notes and explanations pages 202—204

IV. — Zoological Map of the World, showing the distribution of the principal

mammals, birds, and reptiles page 182

Notes and explanations page 204 r-\RT IV.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

SECTION L

EUROPE.

Position, boundaries, extent — oceanic boundary — area of the European seas — the principal gulfs, bays, and straits — peninsulas, capes, and islands — lakes, the northern and southern systems — principal lakes of Europe — rivers of the Arctic ocean, the White Sea, the Baltic, the German Ocean, the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Caspian — mountains in the northern and southern districts — Scandinavian system— Britannic system — the Alps — Pyrenees — Hesperian system — Apennines — Sardo-Corsican system— Carpathian - Germanic — mountains of France — of Turkey and Greece. Minerals: Differences of climate — tliree physical causes — three zones of climate — southern, central, and northern — mean annual fall of rain. Botany — Zoology —People: Celtic, Teutonic, Sclavonic, Lettons, Finns, Magyars, Turks, Tartars, Kalmucks, Basques, Jews, Gipsies — aggregate population. States: Political divisions — area in square miles — population — capitals — form of government, etc. Civilization : Number of public libraries — principal libraries, with the number of volumes. Religion: Fetishism — Lamaism — Mohammedanism — Judaism — Christianity — European Christendom — the Greek Church— the Latin Church — Protestants pages 20.') — 224

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Boundary and extent — Great Britain— its general shape — inlets — coast-line — area — greate.'it breadth of southern division pages 224—226

England and (Cnto .-^Extent— principal indentations of the coast— chief projections of the shore- ^important dependent isles. The surface — the Pennine

CONTENTS. IX

chain — the Cumbrian range— the Cambrian mountains — the Devonian group ^three ridges of low rounded chalk hills — heaths — moorlands — plains. Most important river systems : the Humber, Thames, and Severn— lakes, knyiisu and Welsh counties, with their population, number of parishes, and county and chief towns. London — principal provincial towns, their populationuniversities — colleges— public scliools — ecclesiastical divisions — minerals — manufactures — agriculture — internal communication — instructional, moral, and religious condition of the people. Notes, toposraphical and miscellaneous : London — Manchester with Salford— Liverpool — Birmingham —Leeds— other important sites of manufacturing and commercial activity — places celebrated for their mineral and medicinal waters — places remarkable for great antiquity, historic notoriety, and still important — counties in which agricultural, manufacturing, or mining occupations predominate, or are nearly equal — proportion of inhabitants to every hundred acres in the agricultural, commercial, or manufacturing districts pages 226— 238

Scotland: — Greatest extent of the mainland— chief inlets — principal projections of the coast — Inner and Outer Western Isles— the Orkneys — the Shetlands^ surface — Southern, Central, and Northern Highlands — Lowlands — rivers — lakes — Lowland, Mixed, and Highland counties, their population, county and chief towns — Edinburgh — staple manufactures — fisheries — mineral pro ducts — roads — agriculture — reUgion — language — character and educational acquirements of the Scotch — sanctity of the sabbath respected more than in any other country. Notes: Glasgow — Port-Glasgow — Dundee— Aberdeen — Paisley — Greenock — St Andrew's — county towns in the Highlands — natural curiosities, and sites of historic interest — union of England and Scotland pages 23S— 245

Ireland: — Greatest extent — coast-line — area — inlets and estuaries — capes — islands — prominent features of the surface— great plain — highland ranges — rivers— the Shannon — lakes — civil divisions — provinces — counties, with their population, county and chief towns— Dublin — minerals — manufactures— agriculture— physical features — religion. Notes : Cork— Belfast — Limerick — AVaterford — the Giant's Causeway — monuments of antiquity, pages 245 — 250

United Kingdom : — Summary of the entire population— form of government — House of Lords— House of Commons— benevolence. Notes: Climate — origin of the inhabitants— dialects— value of produce and manufactures — customs" duties— vessels in the foreign and coasting trades— debt and income —annual value of real property — railway communication— BriiisA foreign possession! pages 251 — 254

PRANCE.

Boundaries— superficial area — form — inlets— islands — Corsica— surface of France — monntains — principal rivers— political divisions — old provinces and departments, vrith their capitals and distance from Paris — Paris — manufactures — commercial ports — agriculture — principal minerals— total population — form of government — religion — literature, science, and art— prominent features of the national character. Notes: Lyons — Marseilles— Bordeaux — Rouen — Toulouse — Nantes — Lille — Strasbourg —Amiens — Nismes — Toulon — other places of consequence or interest — ancient and modern royal residences — distance of Paris from various capitals— longest and shortest days in Paris — principal fair in France— most celebrated lighthouse — French foreign possetsioM pages 254—261

BELGIUM.

Boundaries of the kingdom — aspect of the country — fertility of soil — mineral wealth — manufactures — population — principal rivers— provinces, with their capitals and other chief towns— Brussels — manufactures— population— Belgium the battle-field of Europe— Waterloo — the Belgians -language— religion — local Bible Associations— Evangelical Society. Notes: Ghent— Lifege — Chaufontaine — Ostend — Bruges — Malines — Louvain — Namur — Charleroi — Tournay - Herstal— Spa— lines of railway — coal — iron-works — exports — about one-third of population of Prankish origin pages 261 — id

a 3

CONTENTS.

HOLLAKD.

Boundary— extreme limits — coast — group of islands — chain of islands — rivers — lakes and marshes — canals— flatness of the country— terrible calamities, and great geographical changres caused by this peculiar physical condition — sand-mounds— great dike of the Helder— provinces, with their cities and towns — Amsterdam — foreign oppression, political vicissitudes, and struggles for independence— legislative power — character of the Dutch — religion — M. da Costa. Notes: Rotterdam — Utrecht — Leyden — Haerlem — Delft — Dort — Zutphen — Maestrict — Hoorne — Z-woll— Dutch foreign possessions.

GERMANY.

It? boundaries- greatest extent— surface — great plain — hills and mountains — elevated plain or table land — Alps and their branches — river systems— political divisions— states, with their area in square miles, population, capitals.

Kingdom of Bavaria : — Territory of the Danube and Maine — territory of the Rhine^Munich— agriculture. Notes : Nurenberg — Augsburg — Ratisbon — VVurzburg, Passau, Inn, and Spire — Landau— Bipontine editions — celebrated battle-fields — Royal Bavarian Railway pages 271, 272

Hanover:— The country — Harz mountains — the Brocken— the capital. Notes : chief towns — Hildesheim — Luneberg — Ilmenau — Osnaburg — Embden — Clansthai — Gbttingen — railway communication — crowns of Hanover and Great Britain pages 272, 273

Wirtemberg : — Its situation — fertility — Stuttgard. Notes: Ulm — Tubingen — Wirtemberg Railway page 273

Kingdom of Saxony: — The country — manufactures — mineral wealth— the Elbe — Dresden — magnificent bridge. Notes: Leipsic — Chemnitz — Freiberg on the Miinzbach — Herrnhut — principal railways pages 273, 274

Electorate of Hesse Cassel — Grand Duchy of Baden : — Extent of Hesse Cassel — Cassel — Schmalkald — description of the Grand Duchy of Baden— Carlsruhe — Grand Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt — Darmstadt — Grand Duch ies of Mecklentiurg- Schwerin and Strelitz — Oldenburg, and Saxe Weimar. Notes : Mannheim^ Heidelberg — Freiburg — Constance — Baden-Baden— Grand-Duchy of Baden railway — Mayence, or Mentz — Worms — Maine and Neckar Railway— Rostock — Weimar — Jena pages 274, 275

Ducal Territories: — Nassau — Duchy of Brunswick, Brunswick — Saxon Duchies — Anhalt Duchies page 275

Principalities .-—The two Lippes — Waldeck — Reuss, Elder and Younger — the two Schwarzhurgs — Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg — Frankfort. Notes: Hamburg — Bremen — Lubeck — Hanseatic League pages 275, 476

Object of the Germanic Confederation — Literary and scientific eminence of Germany — Book-trade— seats of universities — religious and moral state of the country pages 276, 277

PRUSSIA.

Divisions of the Prussian territory. Eastern division : Its boundaries — surface — moors and heaths — the Elbe— the Oder— the Vistula— the Nienien— Baltic coast -the Curische HafT, or Bay of the Cures — amber — principal islands. Western division : Its extent — vineyards— moorlands. Civil divisions of the kingdom — provinces — governments — cities and towns — Berlin — Copernicus — I, uther— Wittenberg — Melancthon's tomb- subjects of Prussia — education — religion— royal family. Notes: Breslau — Cologne -Konigsberg—Dantzic — .Magdeburg — Aix-la-Cliapelle — other places of importance in the Prussian states — seats of universities — recent accession of influence — Hohenzollern Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern Hechingen — German commercial union (ZoU- ■•erein) — principal railways pages 277 — 282

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE.

Extent — bound,iry — mountain ranges — rivers — monarchy ; its administrative dirisions, with their area in square miles, cities and towns — aggregate popuiatiou pages 282, 28S

CONTENTS. XI

German countries: — Archduchy of Austria — Vienna — Moravia. Silesia, and Bohemia — fertility and products — Styria ; metallic products — lUyria ; mineral wealth and natural curiosities — the Tyrol; its Alpine masses; passes of St. Maria and Stelvio ; the Ortler Spitz pages 2S3, 284

Polish countries : — Kingdom of Galicia^extent — forests — salt-works at Bochnia and Wieliczka— subterranean town of salt page 284

Hungarian countries .-—Their importance to Austria — Kingdom of Hungary ; its extent ; physical character ; minerals — Principality of Transylvania; natural scenery; its gold — Kingdom of Dalmatia — Military Frontier — its origin and extent pages 284, 285

Subjects of Austria — Sclavonic races — Germans — Graeco-Latins — Magyars — moral and religious condition of the people — imperial house. Notes : Prague — Buda— Pesth — Trieste— Lemberg — Brunn — Castle of the Spielberg — field of Austerlitz — Gratz— Inspruck — grave of Hoter — Peterwardein — ^Trent — seats of universities —mineral waters „ pages 285—287

SWITZERLAND.

Its boundaries — greatest extent — area in square miles — Pennine, Helvetian, RhEetian. and Bernese Alps, with their elevations— village of Soglio — principal passes and their heights — Hospice of Great St. Bernard — glaciers and avalanches — rivers — lakes — waterfalls — diversity of climate and vegetable productions — animals— Cantonnal governments with their chief to\vns— diet — Berne— independence of Switzerland— how effected — Tell — inhabitants — occupations— religion. Notes : Geneva — Zurich — Lucerne — Basle — Lausanne — Thun— sites of liistoric interest pages 287 — 2^1

ITALY.

Its boundaries — chief inlets — area of the mainland and islands. Continental Italy: its extent— mountain system — Pennine, Grecian, and Cottian Alps, with their heights and number of feet — principal passes and their elevations — Apennines — Monte Como — Vesuvius — the Po and other important streams. Northern and Central Italy : Their lakes. Insular Italy : Its extent — Etna — islands. Notes: Maltese islands— Valetta pages 291 — 293

Italian States. — Kingdom of the Two Sicilies: — The states with their cities and towns — their entire population — Two Sicilies — natural advantages— Naples. Notes: Historic sites — Bay of Naples — Vesuvius — Palermo — Messina — Catnia — Stragosa— Girgenti — Scylla and Charybdis— Sulphur... pages 294, 295

Sardinian Monarchy : — Its territon.- — physical character of the country— habits of the people — government — Turin. Notes: Genoa — Nice — Chamberry — Chamouni — the Vaudois — Cagliari page 295

Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom : — Under Austrian rule — contains evidene^s of material prosperity — Milan — Venice. Notes : Milan, the general entrepot of the trade of Northern Italy. Milanese Lombardy : Mantua, Pavia, Bergamo, Como, Monza. and Lodi— Venice, remarkable for its situation. Venetian Lombardy : Padua, Vicenza, Verona — Village of Campo Formio ... pages 295, 296

States of the Church : — Extent — Rome — ecclesiastical administration of the temporal sovereignty. Notes : Topographical description of Rome — Bologna — Civita Vecchia and Ancona ^ pages 296, 297

Slates of Tuscany, Modena, Parma, Lucca, G-rand Duchies and Duchies, with Republics of San Marino : — Notes : Florence, capital of the Tuscan Grand Duchy — Leghorn, the greatest commercial emporium of Italy— grave of Smollett — Pisa — colony of camels — Modena, capital of the duchy — Reggio — Lucca, capital of the duchy— republic of San ilarino— cession of Lucca to Tuscany page 297

Italy in General: — Fertility and cultivation of the northern portion — Central Italy ; pestilential character of its lowlands — cultivation of the vine — natural products of Sicily— papal influence in Italy. Notes : Inhabitants of Italy — language — imports and exports— universities — railways — wild beasts.

Xll CONTENTS.

SPAIM AND PORTUGAL.

Extent and superficial area — the country a region of liighlands — the Pyreneet— other ranges — distinguishing prefixes to Spanish names— Central districts, comprising Old and New Castile — rivers— circular pools ........ pages 299, 300

Kingdom of Spain: — Extent — population - districts ; their cities and chief towns — Madrid— national character — the island — Rock of Gibraltar— Spanish monarchy — form of government. Notes : Barcelona — Seville — Granada — Valencia — Malaga — Cadiz — noted places — Cordova — Segovia, Salamanca, Toledo, Saragossa, Badajoz, and Tarifa — quicksilver mines at Almaden — rock-salt at Cardona — principal exports — cork-tree — railway... pages 300 — 302

Kingdom of Portugal : — Area and population — provinces, with their cities and chief towns— Lisbon— Portuguese character — hostility to the Spaniardsmonarchy and form of government. Notes : Oporto — Braganza — Torres Vedras pages 302, 303

The Peninsula at large: — Historical celebrity — Columbus — Vasco de Gama^ Capes St. Vincent and Trafalgar — the Inquisition — intolerance of the Spanish and Portuguese religion. Notes : Spanish and Portuguese foreign possessions — The Azores— San Miguel and Terceira pages 303, 304

DENMARK.

Extent of the Peninsula— area-physical character of the country— western coast — country inland — navigable river, the Eyder — Insular Denmark — islands — south-western side — population — provinces, with their cities and chief towns — Copenhagen — main dependence of the people — religious condition — form of government. Notes : Altona — Kiel — Gluckstadt — Elsinore — Castle of Cronberg — Roskilde— railway communication— Treaty of Calmar — Danes Proper — inhabitants of the duchies— Danish foreigyi possessions — The Faroe Isle — Thorsliaon— Heligoland pages 304 — 306

NORWAY AND SWEDEN.

Extent of the two countries — important islands — the Maelstrom — surface of the western side of the peninsula — mountains and table-lands — roads — rivers — lakes — climate — longest day of Scandinavia — cultivation — vegetation — characteristic animals pages 307 — 309

yorway: — Population — principal districts, with their cities and towns — Christiania — forests and fisheries the main source of subsistence to the people — minerals — mines at Kongsberg — executive government. Notes : Bergen — Trondheim, or Drontheim-Frederickshall — Alstahong— Christiansand and Stavanger — Tromsoe — Hammerfest — Peninsula of Lister— most elevated of the Jield-stuer pages 309, 310

Sueden : — Population — districts, with their cities and towns — the country — mines of Dannemora and Fahlun — legislative assembly. Notes: Gottenburg — Upsal — Carlscrona— Calmar— Wisbey pages 310, 311

Peninsula at large: — Established form of religion— character of the people — Swedish demoralization — the Finns and Lapps — present character. Notes: Swedes and Norwegians, Finns and Lapps — their lineage — characteristic animals — Swedish foreign possession, St. Bartholomew pages 311, 312

RUSSIA IN EUROPE.

Its boundaries — Erman on the boundary of Asia — extent and area of the country — chief insular dependencies — Arctic Islands — extent of the Russian empire — surface of the country — the High Steppes and vegetation— sterility of the Low Steppes — territory of extraordinary fertility — forests— principal marsh-lands- important rivers— the Volga — the Dnieper — lakes— <"liniate — change of seasons — vegetation— animal life — component parts of European Russia — governments or provinces, with their cities and towns— St. Petersburg— total population of the country — numerous races — their moral condition— government— imperial family — religions— various sects— number of persons-clergy- places of worship — nominally Christian Russo-Greek Church; its ceremonies — points of difl'erence between the Greek and Roman Catholic communion — carnival season — missionary efforts. Notes : Moscow ; the Kremlin — Warsaw— Odessa -Riga— W'ilna — Kasan — KietT— Astrakhan — Tula — Sehaetopol — Archangel — Cronstadt — Nishnei-Novporod — Kherson — Kola —principal exports — imperial ukase in reference to the Jews. ..pages 312 — 321

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

Its boundaries, extent, and area — irestem and eastern coast-lines — the Bardanelles — Sea of Marmora — Black Sea — Candia and Samothrace — mountains — vast plain on the north-east— principal rivers — ordinary vejietation — eyalets, or governments — provinces, with their cities and towns — Constantinople — population of the whole country — religion — form of government — religious toleration. Notes : Adrianople — Saloniki — Bukharest — Bosnia-Serai — Phi- 1 ippoli — Janina — Belgrade —Jassy—Widdin — Rustchuk — Silistria — Sophia — Schumla — Larissa — Gallipoli — ancient classical and historical sites — Sublime Porte — chief exports and imports pages 321 — 325

Continental Greece — Its extent and boundaries — the coast — Isthmus of Corinth — characteristic of the interior — classical heights — principal objects of culture — I?isular Greece. Notes : Most interesting districts of ancient Greece — derivation of the names Morea and Isthmian games — distribution of Insular Greece — Negropont — the Western and Northern Sporades — the Northern, Central, and Southern Cyclades pages 325, 326