Teachers' manual for freehand drawing in primary schools

Front matter

Authorized for use in Public Schools.

FOR

FREEHAND DRAWING

Introduction

That it is practicable to teach drawing in the public schools is no longer a matter of doubt ; and that the study is one of great industrial and educational value, when properly taught, no person, wbo has carefully investigated the subject, questions for a moment. The drawing, however, must be wide in its range, rational, and systematic. It must be much more than simple copying : indeed, it must be, in the main, something wholly different from that; and it must be much more than picture-making, — even good original picture -making. Those who think otherwise sadly misapprehend the scope and value of one of the most practical studies.

It will be observed, as characteristic of this course of drawing, both in its primary and advanced grades, that the picture-element, as such, is almost entirely excluded. The author is well aware, that, in excluding many pretty things which have usually been considered proper for drawing exercises, he sacrifices something of superficial attractiveness ; but he omits them because the best artistic, practical, or educational results cannot otherwise be produced. He excludes them from even this primary course, because he would here lay a sound basis for more advanced and severer work, when pupils reach the grammar

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schools. Hence, while the author is aware that pupils are anxious to begin what may be called “ pretty work,” as early as possible, he wishes teachers clearly to understand that picture-making, so far as the public schools are concerned, should always be regarded as a secondary matter. He also wishes teachers to remember that the correct representation of any object, as really seen, involves principles of perspective, with light and shade, which young pupils cannot understand; which cannot, indeed, be understood by any one without much hard study. Hence, to set children drawing from copies involving these features is to set them to reproducing, in a merely mechanical way, what they cannot possibly comprehend. Instead of leading learners into such ruts, the author desires, first of all, to make them acquainted with the beauties of pure form and with the principles of good design. Therefore, jt is that the exercises in this primary course are principally such as deal with mere outline representation, based on geometrical forms, and illustrating leading principles of practical design. It is only when pupils have well mastered this stage that they are prepared to take up intelligently, and in a thorough manner, perspective, and model and object drawing.

DRAWING SHOULD BE TAUGHT BY REGULAR TEACHERS.

Drawing can, and should, be taught by the regular teacher. One who understands the general principles of teaching can teach drawing successfully, without any special artistic gifts. Thousands of persons teach

INTRODUCTION.

arithmetic successfully who possess no special mathematical gifts ; and there is nothing about drawing so difficult to master as some of the features of mathematics. Let it, then, be accepted as true, that there is nothing about drawing to prevent any person of fair capacity becoming proficient enough to teach it intelligently and with success. It is clear, from the present movement in favor of art education, that the teaching of drawing will soon be required in all public schools ; and it must, therefore, be taught by the regular teachers. Indeed, it is best, for various reasons, that it should thus be taught.

THE OBJECT OF THIS PRIMARY COURSE.

This Manual, with the cards which accompany it, is intended for a course of instruction in slate-drawing in primary schools. The exercises are so simple, and so gradually progressive, that teachers, though they may have had no previous instruction in drawing, can master them, if they choose, without assistance, and intelligently lead any class of young pupils who happen to be under their charge. There is no better way to teach one’s self than teaching others. With the cards in the hands of the pupils, furnishing them good copies, it is not at all essential that teachers should be extraordinarily skilful in drawing on the blackboard. The Manual will acquaint them with all the principles involved : these principles they can explain orally to the pupils. It is the clear setting forth of these principles that constitutes the feature of chief importance in teaching drawing. The pupils, with their card copies before them, aided by the oral

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explanation, and by such illustrations (even though they he rude) as the teacher may give on the board, will make very satisfactory progress.

It is the leading object of these cards to teach proportion, the simple figures of plane geometry, the principles of practical design, and to familiarize the pupil with beautiful forms. To immediately follow these cards in the upper classes of primary schools, or in intermediate schools, the author has prepared three small books in free-hand drawing, to be used by pupils in beginning to draw on paper. The exercises in these books apply the principles of the instruction given in the card-exercises, and teach more fully the drawing in outline of objects with regular features,

REDUCTION AND ENLARGEMENT^

Teachers should make themselves sufficiently familiar with the exercises, by drawing them, to be able to point out their features readily and clearly. When working on the blackboard, they should proceed slowly, explaining each point as they go along, and requiring the whole class to work together, even though some are obliged to execute their drawings very rudely.

It is intended that the figures given in the first chapter of the Manual shall be drawn on the blackboard by the teacher to a scale of one foot for every half inch of the copy. Then the pupils are to copy them on their slates, making them of a definite size stated by the teacher. The size of the figures will be governed by the size of the pupils’ Elates. This will teach reduction . It is intended that the forms on

INTRODUCTION.

the cards shall be copied by the pupils from the cards ; the teacher indicating the proportions, or scale, which should be much larger than in the copy. This will teach the pupils enlargement. The two features of practice, reduction and enlargement from copies, should go together: both are essential to good progress in drawing. If each pupil is supplied with card copies, the labor of the teacher will be greatly abridged ; since all can be taught the same thing at the same time, while the advancement of the whole class will be more satisfactory than it can be otherwise. The figures given in the other chapters of the Manual, and not found on the cards, are intended for blackboard copies, to be drawn by the teacher as introductory exercises to the use of the cards, or for dictation exercises to accompany the cards.

GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS.

The definitions of plane geometry, illustrations of which are employed as a basis of freehand drawing, should be given to, and repeated by, the 3roungest pupils. They should be explained, not so much by words, as by freehand illustrations drawn on the blackboard as accurately as possible. Figures of this kind, when seen, children readily understand. The copies in the first chapter may be repeated as often as writing lessons ; but, instead of continued repetitions of the same exercise, the whole series in the first chapter should be gone over once, and then be taken again from the first, with a better understanding and increased skill. When teaching children to draw, above all things avoid wearying them by

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repetition of uninteresting elementary work. They have no appreciation of abstract truths, nor of the words used to express such truths ; hut they are exceedingly sensitive to visible forms, and readily acquire I a knowledge of them. It is possible to reach their understanding through the sense of sight sooner than by appeals to either of the other senses, or by logical explanations. Geometric accuracy in freehand or model drawing is not to be expected of any one : the standard by which the efforts of little children are judged should, therefore, he a very merciful one.

POWER OF OBSERVATION.

Since intelligent drawing is always an expression of knowledge, the power of observation must be cultivated from the outset. Pupils must be trained to discover the features of whatever they are to draw before they begin their work. To take a simple illustration : When the pupils have learned the names of the different straight lines and angles, the square may be given as an exercise. The teacher should draw it on the blackboard, requiring the pupils to name each line as drawn, and, when the figure is completed, to give the number and names of the angles it contains. After the diameters and diagonals have been drawn, the pupils should then be required to state the effect of these lines upon the original angles, and to give the number and names of the new angles and triangles. Other exercises may be treated in a similar manner.

INTRODUCTION.

CLASS ANALYSIS OF FORMS.

When the cards are used, a class analysis of the figure should frequently precede the drawing ; that is, the pupils should be required to describe the general geometrical form of the figure, and the various lines which it contains.

To take card exercise No. 33 for example : The analysis

would show the pupils, before they began to draw, that an oblong would enclose the vase ; that the vase is symmetrically arranged on an axis, its two sides being alike ; that it is composed of compound curves and horizontal lines ; that the top and bottom have the same width ; that the widest part is near the bottom ; that the narrowest part is the neck near the top ; that it has a base ; that the compound curves make both the widest and narrowest parts ; that they do not reach to the bottom ; that there is no ornament on the vase except the horizontal lines. It wilt be seen at once that this preliminary analysis must develop the observing powers, must firmly fix in the mind the principles of drawing and design, must enable the pupils to do their work intelligently.

First of all, then, the eye is to be educated to distinguish form, and the mind to comprehend principles: the correct manual rendering of the form is a simple matter, which will come by practice. In the early lessons, therefore, teachers should lay more stress

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upon developing observation and understanding than upon mere dexterity in execution. It is rare, almost accidental, for young pupils to draw clear unbroken lines; while lines varying in thickness must be expected from them for a long time. In criticising their efforts, form, irrespective of beauty of execution, should be mainly considered at first. When form has been fairly mastered, then teachers may begin to insist upon better lines and more careful workmanship. One thing should thus be taken at a time.

DRAWING ON THE BLACKBOARD.

Drawing on the blackboard should be practised at least once a week by all the pupils; a section working on the board every time a lesson is given, the others working at the same time on their slates. Pupils will be delighted with this, while it will afford them variety of practice, which is important. It will, in particular, allow them to make their drawings on a large scale. This work on the board may be termed the completest exemplification of freehand drawing.

LENGTH OF LESSONS.

Short lessons, often repeated, are better for young pupils than long ones at greater intervals. Pour lessons a week, of half an hour each, or six of twenty minutes each, will be a fair amount of time for children under ten years to give to drawing. After that age the lessons may be longer and not so frequent, while new subjects may be taken up. When instruction is given at all in drawing, the lessons should be sufficiently frequent and sufficiently long to keep the

INTRODUCTION.

pupils alive to their work, and thoroughly interested. Two short lessons a week will not do this. Four lessons will much more than double the results, and six lessons much more than treble them. This is not only true of drawing ; hut every teacher who has tried the experiment knows that it is also true of arithmetic or geography, for example. In neither of these studies would any one expect to make any satisfactory progress with only two short lessons a week. Indeed, the time would be regarded as, perhaps, worse than wasted; since the little progress actually made would not compensate for the disgust many of the children would acquire for the study thus treated. If, then, drawing is to be taught at all, it should be taught in earnest, and not as a merely tolerated study. Even its decided attractiveness will not fully compensate for the lack of earnest work.

Again, if any new study, whatever, is to be put into a school, it should receive for a while, if possible, special attention, in order to emphasize its importance in the minds of the pupils, and to make a strong beginning. To begin well is half the battle. When the new study is thus once firmly established, it may then take its place with the other regular studies. Thus should the schools welcome drawing, which is destined to contribute so much towards the future prosperity and culture of the country.

DICTATION EXERCISES.

It is remarkable how few persons can accurately describe the true form, size, proportions, color, and character of any thing which the eye sees. People have general impressions, which, brought to the test of description, are found to be vague and altogether unreliable. Drawing, preceded by criticism and analysis of copies or objects, in which well-chosen terms describe details, cannot fail to educate even the reasoning powers as well as the imitative and artistic. For this purpose, lessons should also be frequently dictated by the teacher, without illustration in books, on cards, or on the blackboard.

For this kind of instruction, artificial objects, having geometric forms, are better suited than natural objects. For example, houses of simple proportions may thus be dictated and drawn. When such a drawing has been executed, it is then advisable to require the pupils capable of doing so to write a minute description of it, giving its form, size, proportions, &c. There could not possibly be a better subject for a composition, when it is desired to teach exactitude in the use of language.

A simple illustration of the dictation exercise is here given.

The drawing of the annexed geometrical form may be dictated thus : Draw a square, its diameters and diagonals.

Halve the semi - diameters.

From each corner of the square, draw a straight line to the nearest point of division on each diameter. On the diameters of the first square, as diagonals, draw a second square. Erase the diagonals of the first square, and the outer divisions of its

INTRODUCTION.

diameters ; also those parts of the inner square which go behind the points of the star. If the pupils heed what is dictated, they will produce the required figure ; if not, they will draw something else. After the pupils have finished their work, the teacher will draw the figure correctly on the blackboard.

The object, then, of dictation exercises is to show that forms and words are interchangeable, both being mediums for the expression of thought ; to teach pupils to use either language with equal facility; to translate and retranslate from one into the other. Such exercises, beginning with simple geometric forms, may be continued, until the most elaborate irregular forms can be drawn from dictation, if the language describing them be accurate and terse. Artisans have constant use for the power which is acquired from dictation exercises.

MEMORY EXERCISES.

Pupils should be frequently required to produce, from memory, exercises which they have previously drawn. This will show the teacher how much of previous instruction is retained, while it is valuable simply as a means for developing the power of memory. Therefore, as soon as pupils have got a limited knowledge of forms, they should begin to reproduce these forms without seeing the copies and within a specified time. It is also urged that the, pupils, leaving their cards at school, be occasionally required to do their drawing exercises at home, from memory, and, putting them into a little book provided for the purpose, bring them to the teacher for inspection.

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RULING AND MEASURING.

With each series of cards there is a five-inch scale, the inches divided into halves, quarters, and sixteenths. This scale should be used only for correcting lines after they have been drawn, and not to help in first drawing the lines. Teachers must see that pupils do not use the scale in the manner prohibited. It is essential that the first lines of any drawing should be approximately correct, otherwise the remaining lines will be wholly out of place. Hence, when the first proportional lines have been drawn as nearly correct as possible by the eye alone, pupils should be permitted to measure them, and to correct them if they need correction. It is to be distinctly understood, however, that the measuring is not to be permitted until the lines have been drawn.

Some teachers say, “ Never draw a straight line freehand if you have the means of ruling it ; ” yet it is better thus to draw straight lines than to rule them, unless it is absolutely essential, for some special reason, that they be mathematically straight, both because it is good practice for the eye and hand, and makes the pupil independent of rulers. The same may be said of drawing circles. Of course, when any thing of importance depends upon a circle being perfectly drawn, it is best to use a pair of compasses ; but a circle practically exact may be drawn freehand with very little experience, and it is educational thus to draw it. In practice, it will be found more difficult to rule either vertical or horizontal straight lines, than to draw them by the aid of the

INTRODUCTION.

eye alone. A somewhat extended experience in teaching, with continued observation of the work of many pupils, has convinced the author that those who draw vertical and horizontal lines freehand, hesides doing their work in less time, generally make their lines more nearly upright and level than those who rule them. Those only draw well who draw intelligently.

POSITION.

When vertical and horizontal lines are drawn, the slate or paper should be kept in one position in front of the pupil, its edge parallel with the edge of the desk. When oblique lines are drawn, the slate or paper may be kept in the same position, while the hand is turned so that the vision may not be obstructed. When curves are drawn, it will be best to allow the slate or paper to be put in any position the pupil may prefer, in order that the hand may form the centre of the curve drawn, which can be, in some cases, only when the drawing is turned sidewise or upside down.

PENCILS AND MODELS.

The slate pencils should be soft, long, well-pointed, and held about an inch and a half from the end, far enough to keep the fingers from obstructing the vision.

For the purpose of illustrating many of the exercises, and accelerating the advance of the pupils, every primary school should have a box of models, which can be procured of the publishers of this book. Such a box would contain a sphere, cube, oblong block, triangular prism, hexagonal prism,

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cone, cylinder, rectangular pyramid, square frame, cross, and some other pieces.

In conclusion, the author would say that the child who draws from five years of age to fifteen ought to be able to draw any created thing, and will he able to do so when we teach well what every child ought to | know. There is no royal road to drawing ; and those who profess to offer such a road to us iff ay be suspected of a desire to mislead with a regal name which represents nothing.

Chapter I. I

CENTRE, POINTS, AND STRAIGHT LINES.

When young children begin to draw, teach them first, the meaning of the word “ centre.” Require them, by way of illustration, to touch the centre of their slates with the end of their pencils. This centre we will call a point.

A Point.

A point is simply position or place, without size, and may he indicated in different ways.

Explain, next, the meaning of the words “ right ” and “ left.” Draw a vertical line on the blackboard ; to the right of this line draw another, explaining that • the last is to the right hand of the first. In the same way illustrate the meaning of the word “left.” Next, draw a horizontal line, and in a similar manner explain the meaning of the words “ above,” “below.”

Always make certain, in some way, that children have a clear understanding of whatever is used for the purpose of further extending their knowledge. It is well to take nothing for granted, but to explain the simplest things. When the celebrated Faraday lectured before children at the Royal Institute, London, he was accustomed to illustrate the most common phenomena. He would not take it for granted that the children knew that an apple, when unsupported,

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will fall to the ground ; but he would actually illustrate the fact.

STRAIGHT LINES.

A Vertical Line. — A vertical line is a straight line which runs up and down, inclining neither to the right nor to the left , neither backwards nor forivards (aj.

A Horizontal Line. — A horizontal line. is a level straight line, inclining neither up nor down (b).

An Oblique Line.— Aw oblique line is a straight line, neither vertical nor horizontal, but slanting (c).

First, draw. the three kinds of lines on the board, and give their names. Then require the pupils to draw them on their slates, without turning their slates. Each line should be drawn many times, until the pupils can instantly distinguish between the different lines; until they can instantly name them when drawn by the teacher, or instantly draw them when named by the teacher. A straight stick held in different positions will serve nicely to illustrate the meaning of the words “ horizontal,” “ vertical,” “ oblique.” Request the pupils to name objects in these different positions.

Parallel Lines. — Parallel lines are lines running side by side in the same direction, and are always at the same distance from one another throughout their, whole length. They may be straight or curved , vertical, oblique , or horizontal.

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Draw on the board parallel vertical (A), horizontal (B), and oblique lines (C), and require the pupils to repeat them on their slates, without turning their slates.

This is an exercise to which you should frequently revert. When the pupils have drawn two lines parallel, require them to draw a third in the centre between the two, and thus let them continue to halve the spaces between the lines, until the lines are very close together. The pencil should have a fine point for this work, and no two lines should be allowed to touch each other. This is excellent practice. As soon as the pupils have acquired some skill in judging distances, require them to draw parallel lines of definite length, as one inch, two inches, &c.

Pupils should have a clear understanding of parallel lines. There are two things requisite to make lines parallel : they must lie side by side, and they must have the same direction. When, therefore, we want two parallel vertical, or two parallel horizontal lines, it is not enough to say, “ Draw two vertical lines,” or, “Draw two horizontal lines; ” for in neither case need the lines be drawn side by side. Nor is it enough when two parallel lines are wanted, simply to draw them side by side ; for side by side does not necessarily mean that the lines must have exactly the same direction. Hence we must say parallel vertical lines, parallel perpendicular lines, parallel oblique

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lines, or parallel horizontal lines, as the case may be, if we would say just what we mean. As further progress is made in this course of drawing, it will be more clearly seen why so much stress is laid upon the exact use of terms.

See that the pupils always have long and well-pointed pencils : they should never be allowed to draw with stubs or blunt pencils. To make sure that the pencils are always in good condition, keep them in a box under your own charge, to be distributed and taken up at every lesson. Appoint some one of the pupils, from day to day, to sharpen the pencils, doing the work where it will not disturb the school. Without good material, it is impossible to draw rapidly and well.

The pencil should be held about an inch and a half from the point, and so held that the hand will not come between the eye and the space where the line is to be drawn, obstructing the vision.

When drawing straight lines in different directions, as horizontal, vertical, and oblique, instead of turning the slate or paper, turn the hand. Observe these two things : always keep the hand and fingers in a position of freedom ; never let the hand obstruct the sight.

Draw the shortest lines with the fingers alone ; those somewhat longer draw with the hand, using the wrist joint ; the next grade draw with the fore-arm, using the elbow joint; those longer yet, which will usually be on the blackboard, draw with the whole arm, using the shoulder joint. Occasionally, in drawing a very long horizontal line on the blackboard, it is necessary to carry the body forward as the line is drawn. It is best, when drawing a vertical line on the blackboard, to stand directly in front of where the line is to be drawn, with the side partially turned towards the board, and far enough away to let the hand, when the arm is extended, fall easily carrying the crayon down. Never draw a line with a jerky movement, but always with a uniform motion, and slow enough for the eye to follow.

DIVIDING STRAIGHT LINES AND JUDGING DIS- TANCES.

Draw on the blackboard a vertical line (1), and divide it into two equal parts. Explain that the dividing mark is in the centre of the line. Draw another line (2), and divide it into four [ equal parts ; first, by dividing it into two equal parts, and then each of the halves into two other equal parts. Draw another line (3), and divide it into three equal parts. Dividing a line into three equal parts is more difficult than dividing it into two equal parts. Draw another line (4), and divide it into six equal parts ; first, by dividing it into two equal parts, and then each of the halves into three equal parts. While the teacher draws these lines on the blackboard, the pupils should draw lines of a given length on their slates, and divide them into halves, quarters, thirds, and sixths, following the teacher. Exactness in the division of lines should not be expected on the part of young pupils at first. It is sufficient, if they get the idea.

t

Accuracy will come by practice. In these early stages, permit the pupils to correct their faults in free measurement by the aid of the scale which accompanies each series of cards. This practice will he found the surest way of educating them to correct observation. Before resorting, however, to the use of the scale, the pupils should do their best with their eyes alone. Drawing and dividing lines in this manner should be practised in connection with other lessons, until pupils acquire a considerable degree of skill in determining definite distances and proportions.

Young children, unless they have received positive instruction, seldom have any clear idea of the length of an inch, a foot, a yard, or mile, though they may have heard the words used hundreds of times. If questioned, they frequently give answers that astonish the questioner.

Suppose, further, that it is required to draw a line, but of no particular length, and to divide it into five, seven, eleven, thirteen, or any other prime number of equal parts. In that case, having drawn a line, divide it into four equal parts, and then add one part, to make five ; or divide it into eight equal parts, and then erase one, leaving seven, if that is the number required. That is, first draw a line, and divide it into a composite number of parts, then add or erase, as may be required. This is not, of course, a suitable exercise for the youngest pupils.

Frequently ask the pupils how they would proceed to divide a line into any designated number of equal parts. If, for example, the number is six, the answer should be : Divide the line into two equal parts ;

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then divide each part into three equal parts, giving six.

COMBINING STKAIGHT LINES. ANGLES.

As soon as the pupils have acquired a knowledge of straight lines, they should begin to combine them. Draw on the blackboard a vertical line of definite length, say twelve inches, and then require the pupils to draw a similar line, say four inches long, on their slates.

At this stage, the lines should all be drawn of definite lengths. Having first been drawn by the aid of the eye alone, they should afterwards all be corrected by the scale. Such practice is the beginning of the study of proportion.