Teachers' manual for freehand drawing in intermediate schools

Part II. Auction 153

.METgv, Conventionalization, and Repetition. . . 161

«)NVE]J^50NALIZATION AND APPLIED DESIGN . . . .175

Conventionalization, Historical Ornament, &c. . . .189

Object Drawing and Historical Forms .: ... 200

Decorative Art.— Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Moresque Styles 224

Part III

Model and Object Drawing. — Its General Features and Principles explained . . . . . . .241

Exercises in Model and Object Drawing . . . .269

2683042

CONTENTS,

PART I. General Directions, and Principles and Methods of

teaching Drawing

Straight Lines defined. — How to draw them. — Judging

Distances .

Straight Lines combined. — Angles. — Triangles. —Quad

rilaterals. — Polygons

Right Line Geometrical Designs

Plane Curves and Plane Curved Figures. — Designs com posed of Straight and Curved Lines .... Reversed Curves, and Applications. — Abstract Curves page

. 5

Part II

Symmetry, Conventionalization, and Repetition Conventionalization and Applied Design Conventionalization, Historical Ornament, &c.

Object Drawing and Historical Forms . :

Decorative Art.— Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Moresque Styles 224

Part III

Model and Object Drawing. — Its General Features and Principles explained . . . . . . .241

Exercises in Model and Object Drawing . . . .269

' v Vi .

2683042

LNTKODU CTTONi

The size and arrangement of the books belonging to this Intermediate Course are such, it is believed, that the transition from slate-work to drawing in the book will not prove difficult for the young learner. If he has, during the Primary Course of cards and slates, drawn somewhat on practice-paper, then he will be, in a measure, prepared for the severer exactions of drawing systematically on paper in a book.

Even the smallest pupils can easily handle the Intermediate drawing-books, the size so well adapting the books to their hands and desks. Then the earlier exercises require the drawing of no long lines. As a part, too, of these exercises have been taken from the cards, in order to graduate the difficulties in the transition from slate- work to books, the pupil is not obliged to learn, at the same time, both the manipulation of new material, and the drawing of new forms. But, after a little, the exercises are almost wholly different from those on the cards, even when they illustrate the same principles of design ; while, as facility in the use of the pencil is gained by practice, the drawings are required to be done on a much larger scale, for the purpose of more fully testing and training the powers of the learner.

THE FIRST BOOK.

The first book, after attending to the drawing of straight lines, to their division, and to the judging of distances, concerns itself with plane geometrical figures, with geometrical patterns, or designs, for woven fabrics, for covering surfaces, for borders and mouldings, and with objects produced b}r the potter, the silversmith, and the like. The principles of design, as thus applied., were touched upon in the Primary Course, but are more fully explained in this Manual.

The drawing-book, which goes into the hands of the pupil, contains copies illustrating all the principles explained in the Manual, which is specially designed for the teacher. Some of the copies the pupil is to reproduce of the same size ; but others to enlarge, that he may thus be trained in proportional enlargement. Then the Manual contains a great number of additional copies for dictation and blackboard lessons, — the latter to teach proportional reduction, as the pupil must reproduce them in his book on a much' smaller scale ; the former to serve for reviews, for developing the imagination, and for training the pupil to close attention. From time to time the pupil is also required to draw a form from memory. Finally, he must quite often produce an original design according to the principles he has been taught, — -best of all proofs that the principles

Introduction

are understood, and that the knowledge acquired is of real worth. Thus the learner, from these five different modes of drawing, cannot fail to obtain a varied and most valuable discipline. The same features are adhered to throughout the three books.

The paper required for the blackboard, dictation, and memory exercises, and for the original designs, is afforded b}7 the blank pages found in each of the books. Detailed directions are given for filling each blank page.

THE SECOND BOOK.

The second book, after a fuller explanation than is given in the Primary Course, of conventional forms and of the principles of design, as derived from nature, and employed in decoration, takes up historic ornament, — takes it up in such a way that the learner acquires a clear notion of what is meant by style , a matter of prime importance in art education. Some of the leading features which characterize the three ancient styles of decorative art, — Eg}Tptian, Greek, Roman, — and distinguish them from one another, are pointed out and illustrated. Something is also said of the Moresque.

There is nothing in all this, when properly done, beyond the ready comprehension of the young learner. Indeed, he can as well be made acquainted with the forms, the thoughts, and the principles which the ancients embodied in their decorative art, as with their religious myths, their heroic legends, and military exploits. Even the little that is here given will enable the learner to discriminate, in '

TEACHERS' MANUAL.

several important features, between the three historic styles named, and to make original designs characteristic of either, instead of mingling their features in one nondescript mass, a thing which has been not infrequently done by practical designers. With these three ancient styles is laid the foundation for the study of all st3Tles, ancient, mediaeval, and modern. Unless we possess a knowledge of what has been done, and how it has been done, we cannot work intelligently or with confidence in any new direction, in developing a new style.

THE THIRD BOOK.

The third book is devoted mainly to model and object drawing. Up to this point the pupil has dealt with only two dimensions, — length and breadth. He now begins to draw models and objects perspectively, representing their three dimensions, — length, breadth, and thickness. If he simply reproduces the copies in the drawing-book, then it will still be flat drawing, and not drawing from the solid. The copies must be used, when properly used, in connection with models and objects such as the publishers of this system of drawing have had made to accompany the books. By using, at first, both flat copies, and solid models and objects, — the former to show what should be the appearance of the latter when properly drawn, — the pupil more readily apprehends the principles which he must observe in -representing solids. Thus the difficulties are graduated both for him and for the teacher. But his work is not confined to a reproduction, with the aid

INTRODUCTION.

of models and objects, of the given flat copies : on the blank pages he is to make drawings of models and objects, the same as already used, but placed in different positions, or of other solids, artificial or natural. This will be drawing from the solid, pure and simple.

The models and objects to be drawn consist of regular geometrical solids, or they have marked geometrical features. As the learner who pursues this system begins, in flat drawing, with plane geometrical figures, followed by forms having marked geometrical outlines, so he proceeds in a similar manner when he begins to draw from the solid. Thus he takes the regular before the irregular, the simple before the complex. Unless he can first properly draw regular geometrical solids, he should by no means be set at work upon natural or artificial objects, whose general forms are pretty certain to be geometrical, to which are added numerous irregular details. The irregular details are more difficult to draw than the regular general forms, yet are of no consequence, unless the latter are correctly rendered. The best possible introduction to drawing from nature and from the human figure is the model and object drawing here described.

This whole course of drawing, from the primary school onwards, is based upon geometry ; b}T which it is not simply meant that the pupil is to draw plane and solid geometrical figures as exercises in themselves, but is to refer all things drawn to regular geometrical forms. Nature follows such forms in

1 0 TEA CEERS ’ MAN UAL .

all her works, and so does man, either wittingly or unwittingly, in all that he constructs. The perception of these general forms greatly assists in drawing the specific forms with all their variable details. The most successful art instruction, whether an industrial or a purely aesthetic result was sought, has always proceeded upon this geometrical basis.

The drawing from models and objects in this Intermediate Course is all outline. There is no shading to consume the time, and waste the energies, of the pupils. A dozen objects can be drawn in outline, where a single object can be drawn and properly shaded. No amount of shading can make a good drawing, when the outline is defective. The outline is of the first importance. Therefore, until solids can be readily represented in outline, it is worse than useless to attempt light and shade. Everywhere good instruction recognizes this fact in the education of young children.

Freehand drawing from the solid requires some knowledge of the principles of perspective. The little that is required in this Intermediate Course can be easily illustrated, and is of such simple character, that quite young pupils can master it without much difficulty. Faithful instruction on the part of the teacher, with the flat copies and models and objects combined, will soon enable the pupils to work understanding^ and with good effect. It will be seen that circular forms are taken before rectangular forms, because they involve less of perspective difficulties, and are usually more pleasing for children to draw.

INTRODUCTION.

CHARACTER OF THE MODELS AND OBJECTS.

One of the educational ends to be attained by drawing from the solid is the development of the imagination, the training of the pupil to “ see in space,” as it is termed, — to make a clear mental image of a solid, with its lines all in their right positions. The great value of this power is unquestionable ; and no other study is so well calculated to develop it as model and object drawing. Now, so far as this development of the imagination is concerned, it matters little whether the forms of the models and objects be graceful or homely. But as the development of the taste, of the power to discriminate between that which is beautiful and that which is not, must never be overlooked in drawing, it becomes absolutely essential that the models and objects, like the prints, which are placed before the pupils, should be of the most beautiful character possible. The taste cannot be developed, while the eyes are always looking at things that have no beaut}’.

THE PRIMARY COURSE REVIEWED.

The first two Intermediate books review the Primary Course. The}' do much more than this, indeed. The third book deals with features almost wholly new. Hence those who have never drawn at all, but are old enough to draw in a book, can begin with the Intermediate Course. They will lose nothing in the way of principles, but will need to work much harder. Thus there are two places where

TEACHERS' MANUAL.

pupils, according to age, can begin this system of drawing : the}- can begin with the Primary cards or with the Intermediate drawing-books.

GRADATION.

One of the marked features of this course of drawing is its logical and systematic gradation from the primary to the high school. As it is a comprehensive course, embracing five general departments, — Flat Outline Drawing and Designing (freehand), Model and Object Drawing (freehand) , Plane Geometrical Drawing (instrumental), Perspective Drawing (instrumental), Mechanical Projection and Working- Drawings (instrumental), — the gradation is determined, (1) by the relation which these general departments bear to one another ; (2) by the relation which the leading features and minor details of each department bear to one another ; (3) by the difficulties which the principles present to the understanding ; (4) by the quality of the manual execution demanded at different stages of progress. The whole arrangement is believed to be according to reason and the best I experience.

But it is impossible to judge it correctly from I any one feature alone. Thus, to say that the

gradation is bad, because many of the exercises in the Intermediate books are no more difficult to draw than others on the Primary cards, simply shows an ignorance of one of the things — the quality of the manual execution at different stages of progress — which have had an influence in determining the gradation. In the Intermediate Course the drawings

INTRODUCTION.

are to be much better executed than in the Primary Course. It is deemed of chief importance that the general features of the gradation be right : errors of detail, indeed, there should not be ; but they are of secondary consequence.

In a certain sense, even the Primary Course is complete by itself ; that is, the pupil who goes no farther acquires a good amount of clear-cut knowledge of drawing and design, which, taken alone, is both available and useful. The same may be said of the Intermediate Course, and of the Grammar Course, — said with more emphasis. This results from the fact that the gradation is, in a measure, according to cycles, and not wholly on a straight line.

CERTAIN FEATURES WHICH CHARACTERIZE THE INSTRUCTION.

There is no inculcation of arbitrary processes, with the claim that they are the best for all pupils, and under all circumstances. Those methods are preferred which the experience of the practical draughtsman has shown to be best. Precedence is always given to knowledge, and not to manual execution. The teacher who has, at the end, nothing to show but finely drawn lines, has given poor instruction. His class should be able to sustain a thorough examination, based on the principles which the Manual so fully explains, and which he should impart to his class as they proceed with their drawings. Again : it is regarded as a matter of vital importance, that the pupils, from the outset, and always, draw with considerable rapidity, though they draw rudely : other-

TEACHERS' MANUAL.

wise spirit and boldness, as well as knowledge, will be sacrificed to delicate, laborious finish. This is the rule of the best schools.

IMPROPER USE OF THE BLACKBOARD.

The uses which can be properly made, and should be made, of the blackboard in teaching drawing are described in the body of the Manual ; but nothing , is said of the improper use to which the blackboard is often put, where the nature of drawing is not well understood. We refer to its employment simply for the purpose of providing the pupils with copies, while they are drawing in blank drawing-books. Now, there are three serious objections to this : —

1. As one of the leading objects to be attained by drawing is development of the taste, and as this cannot be developed unless the pupils are provided with beautiful copies and objects to draw (the more beautiful the better) , it becomes absolutely essential for every teacher of drawing, who is obliged to work without beautiful printed copies in the hands of his pupils, to be an expert draughtsman, or he cannot provide on the blackboard copies having the requisite beauty for even the most elementary instruction. Now, drawing in the public schools must be mainly taught by the regular teachers, or not taught at all. Most of these teachers are not expert draughtsmen, and so cannot teach without printed copies ; but, with such copies in the hands of their pupils, they can do good work, and do it easily.

2. But, even if the regular teachers were all expert draughtsmen, it would still be insufficient. In the

INTRODUCTION.

first place, they would have neither the time nor the strength to make , all the drawings required. In the second place, even if the drawings were beautifully made on the blackboard, it would not suffice for the development of taste in class instruction. Only the four or five pupils who might chance to sit directly in front of the blackboard drawing would get a proper view of it : all the others would look at it more or less obliquely ; and so for them nearly every line would be distorted, the whole figure losing its beauty, and becoming a teacher of ugliness. Therefore, all good schools of art, where class instruction is given, prohibit the use both of the blackboard and of wall-charts, if the purpose is simply to provide the pupils with drawing-copies.

As a rule, the amount of time spent by the teacher at the blackboard in general explanation and sketching should not exceed one-tenth of the whole time given to a lesson. The remaining nine-tenths should be devoted to the individual instruction of the pupils. -This precludes the average teacher from making beautiful drawings on the blackboard, which, as already stated, are not necessary when the pupils are provided with accurately drawn copies in their books before them. Indeed, it cannot be too often repeated, that the blackboard should only be used to explain principles, and to illustrate right and wrong methods of work. Its use for pictorial purposes is always to be avoided.

3. Every methodical person will perceive, at a glance, that it is impossible suitably to grade the instruction in drawing, and make it effective, without

— ;jA a suitable series of text-books. When such books are lacking, there will be waste of effort on the part of teachers, waste of time on the part of pupils, and good results here and there only by chance.

DRAWING MATERIAL, AND ITS CARE.

In addition to suitable books and models, the pupils should be provided with the best of pencils and rubbers. The best work cannot be done with' ; poor materials. The best pencil is the cheapest. | No instruments are needed for this Intermediate Course, beyond a cheap rule, such as the schoolsquare prepared for this purpose by the author. Books, pencils, and rubbers should be in charge of the teacher, when the drawing lesson is not in progress. The pencils should all be carefully sharpened by some one appointed to do this work between the lessons ; and the rubbers should be examined as to their cleanliness, a thin shaving being removed from their surface, if that is found to be dirty. Not more than one minute should ever be consumed in distributing or collecting the books, pencils, and rubbers for a class of forty.

THIS MANUAL.

The teacher will find in this Manual all needed explanation of principles and of methods of work. The drawings have a black background, as when drawn on the blackboard, where the teacher, for one purpose or another, will have occasion to draw

TNTROD TJCTION.

many of them. The drawings are small ; but they will serve just as well the purpose for which the Manual is intended ; that is, to aid the teacher in the instruction of pupils who use the drawing-books containing larger copies. It is expected that the teacher will thoroughly instruct his pupils in the methods of work, in the definitions of terms, and in the principles of design, which are given in the Manual, — a thing that cannot be done without frequent reviews.

INSTRUCTION BY THE REGULAR TEACHERS.

If the introduction of drawing into the public schools is to be at all speedy and successful, it must be taught in the ungraded schools, and in the graded schools below the high, by the regular teachers ; that is, by the teachers who give instruction in the other branches. Except where the departmental plan is adopted, it is now the custom for a single teacher to attend to several things at the same time, — to reading, arithmetic, geography, grammar, for example. As it is not deemed necessary, certainly is not deemed practicable, to have special teachers for instructing pupils in any of these studies ; so it is no more necessary or practicable to have special teachers to instruct the pupils in drawing. There may, indeed, be special teachers to instruct the regular teachers, and to inspect their work ; but the latter must, and they can best, instruct the pupils.

Elementary drawing, when treated in a rational, systematic manner, is one of the easiest and one of

TEACHERS' MANUAL.

the most delightful things to teach children. This is the almost universal testimony of those who have fairly tested the matter. But it can be successfully introduced into the public schools only upon certain conditions. Like other studies, it must be made compulsory, and not be left to the decision of the teacher and pupil. There must be examination and promotion, as in other branches. Both the practical and educational value of drawing entitle it to such treatment, which every one considers essential to success in all other studies.

Satisfactory results in drawing are no more dependent upon special artistic gifts on the part of the pupils, than satisfactoiy results in arithmetic are dependent upon special mathematical gifts. It is only necessary that the pupils set about the study of drawing as the}' set about the study of arithmetic, geography, grammar. Nor are special gifts required on the part of the teacher. It is by no means imperative that he should be an expert with the pencil or crayon in order to teach with success elementary drawing, as presented in this system ; but he should be a good teacher in general, well acquainted with the best,principles and methods of instruction. It is presubaed that every regular teacher possesses this general knowledge, to which, with a reasonable amount of effort, the special knowledge demanded by elementary drawing can soon be added.

Chapter I. General Directions, And Principles And Methods Of Teaching Drawing

Pupils who have drawn on the slate only, and have learned to do quite good work with that, are often discouraged by their first attempts at drawing on paper. This is due to difference in material used. Yet pupils who have used the cards of the Primary Course, drawing on the slate, possess a decided advantage over those, who, never having drawn at all, begin at this stage with paper. The advantage consists partly in manual skill, but much more in the training which the eye has received, in a knowledge of how to go to work, and in a knowledge of the principles of drawing and of design.

Economizing Instruction.

When pupils of these-two grades are thrown together in the same school, they can be taught drawing together, though at some disadvantage. As you never expect all^the members of a class to show equal proficiency in any other study, so never look for it in drawing. Unless, therefore, the differences in attainment be very marked, require all the pupils in the school, not only to execute the same drawing at the same time, but require them, when you give the description, to execute the same part at the same time. By thus keeping the pupils together, you will be able to teach all at once, instead of teaching each separate^, and so will economize instruction. But you must, of course, give each more or less of individual attention, as opportunity serves ; while each should be required, at regular intervals, to draw on the blackboard on a large scale, for such practice is productive of that freedom which should be obtained from freehand drawing.

Those who draw badly under this class treatment, nevertheless, can be made to draw rapidty, which, in itself, is a thing of prime importance from the outset of one’s drawing career. Fineness of execution comes with practice : it should never be made the leading feature when one is beginning to draw. If it is, then those much more valuable features — freedom, spirit, knowledge — are usually rendered subordinate, the final result being lifeless art and a slow workman. Keep it, indeed, always in mind, that drawing, when properly taught, is much more an exhibition of knowledge than of mere dexterity in the use of the pencil.

Body. — Hand. — Pencil. — Book.

There is no one way in which it is always best to sit, to place the hand, hold the pencil, and keep the book. As a rule, it may be assumed that the pupil who takes an interest in his work, and is anxious to do it, will be likely, influenced by this feeling, to put his body in the position that will best enable him to do as his mind desires. There can be given, however, a few useful general directions.

Whatever the position of the body, it should always be easy and healthy, the eye never any nearer the paper than is essential for a clear view of the lines. Neither the arm nor the fingers should be constrained or cramped, but at all times perfectly free, that the pencil may be readily moved, and the drawing continued for hours, if necessary, without special fatigue of the muscles. The pencil should be held with the fingers about an inch and a half from the point. The smaller the pupils, however, the nearer the point of the pencil should the fingers come ; thus accommodating the pencil to the fingers. For a horizontal line, hold the pencil as a pen is usually held in writing ; for all other lines, change its position as required in order to draw the different lines with ease. When lining in a drawing, hold it more nearly upright than when making the sketch.

As a rule, the book should lie square in front of the pupil, whether he sits directly facing the desk, or not, — a matter to be determined by comfort, — since that position of the book affords a better view of the drawing than one gets when the book is partly turned. There must, however, always be an unobstructed view of the space where the line is to be drawn. This is a prime condition, which can be secured in two ways : by changing the position of the hand and pencil, as already recommended, or by turning the book. It takes more time, and is more trouble, to do the latter than the former ; and so the former, when it will answer the purpose, is to be

TEACHERS' MANUAL.

preferred. But, when you are drawing a curve line, the concave, and not the convex side should be towards the hand ; for this affords much the best view of the line. In order to have it thus, turn the book if necessary. There is no other time when it is decidedly best to turn the book simply for the purpose of drawing a line, since we soon learn to draw lines readily in different directions by so drawing them. If, however, any pupil fails to acquire such power after a reasonable amount of practice, permit him to turn his book as he chooses.

While, as a rule, the book need not be turned simply for the purpose of drawing lines in different directions, yet it should be turned in order to examine and correct a drawing at different stages in it's progress ; since errors can be more easily discovered when the drawing is viewed on all sides. For the purpose of examination, it is best to hold a drawing vertically before the e}Te, and far enough off -to afford a good view of the whole at once.

It is the tendency of }'Oung pupils, at first, to turn their books when they need not ; that is, to turn them for the purpose of drawing all lines one way, horizontally for example. At the same time the}' neglect to turn them when they should ; that is, for the purpose of deliberately, critically viewing the drawing on all sides, in order to detect errors.

There should be nothing arbitral')' about the methods of the schoolroom : they should, in a word, be those which the practical draughtsman has found it best to employ in the execution of his work, those which will enable the pupils to execute their drawings with the greatest ease and rapidity according to the nature of the work to be done.

Lines of Different Lengths.

Length of line is a thing always to be considered. Long and short lines cannot be drawn with ease in the same manner ; but it is impossible to indicate just the length of line that can be best drawn in one way, and just the length of line that can be best drawn in another way. This much may be said, however, with advantage to the learner : —

Draw the shortest lines with a movement of the fingers alone ; the next longer with a movement of the hand at the wrist ; the next with a movement of the forearm at the elbow ; the next with a movement of the whole arm. When drawing very long horizontal lines on the blackboard, carry the body forward with the hand. When drawing vertical lines on the blackboard, stand far enough from the board to allow the extended arm to drop easily downwards. Thus we have five movements : the finger, hand, forearm, whole arm, and body movements. At the outset the pupils need to be instructed quite carefully in these movements : after a little they will employ, even without thought, just the right movement for each line.

Trial Lines. — Sketching. — Lining in. — Erasing.

Commence to draw a line by making it so faint that it can just be seen. This trial line may be continuous or discontinuous. If it is found to be in the wrong position, then, without erasing, draw a second similar faint line, and a third, and a fourth, if necessary. When, at last, you have a trial line in the right position, finish it by going over it again ; and drawing it dark — not black, but gray — and of the required thickness. 1 Now, -rind not before, erase the erroneous lines. Sometimes, however, when the lines are numerous, it is well to erase the erroneous ones in part, if not wholly, before finishing, or “lining in” as it is called. Again: if the trial lines have been made a little too dark, use the rubber freely before lining in, rendering the lines just visible, as the drawing can then be more readily and neatly finished.