Talks on pedagogics : an outline of the theory of concentration

Front matter

i/ftA-^

NORMAL SCHOOL LIBRARY,

CHICAGO, ILL.

Preface

These " Talks " were given at the Teachers' Retreat, Chautauqua Assembly, New York, July, 1891/'' Their popular form has been changed to text for close study. Many repetitions have been omitted, but leaving, as the reader will find, a sufficient number to maintain the reputation of an average teacher. The experience of three years has naturally brought other changes, suggesting modifications and additions.

The discussion of the doctrine of Concentration presented in this book is the outcome of work done in the Cook County Normal School.

In 1883 I resigned my position as one of the Supervisors of the Boston schools in order to come into closer range and contact with children's minds. The work done in Quincy was a slight beginning of something far better.

Of the special direction of progress, the ideal was vague — not in the clear. One thing, however, appeared right — that 'the natural sciences and history should be put into the primary school, made an essential part of the course for eight years; and that reading and language lessons might spring from the thought aroused from tlie study of the central subjects. Another proposition presented itself with great force: that pupils under proper

* They were also given at the New York Teachers' Training College, the University of Minnesota, and the Cook County Normal Summer School.

in iv Preface.

conditions could be led to govern themselves; that punishments, per-cents, and rewards were, to say the least, not necessary.

A corps of very earnest teachers went to work upon these ideas. Whatever one teacher discovered was contributed to the general treasury. Every point was discussed in our weekly faculty meetings. My first intimation of Concentration came from the principles of Delsarte in his doctrine of the reaction of vocal and pantomimic expression upon the mind; these principles were applied to all the modes of expression.

The main purpose steadily developed itself. For methods of arousing and sustaining a body of educative thought, we looked in the direction of elementary science, geograpb}^, myth, and history.

Prof, and Mrs. H. H. Straight, of blessed memory, were enthusiastic believers in science for children. Prof. Straight had learned methods from Agassiz. A beginning in science teaching was made under his guidance, and it was soon found that reading, writing, indeed all language, could be profitably taught in connection with science lessons. The same discovery was made in regard to geography, myth, and history. The first idea of the unification of arithmetic and science came from Prof. Straight. Miss Mary E. Burt assisted very much in literature. Miss Ellen Montfort began modeling, painting, and diawing as a means of teaching science, geography, and history. Miss Harriet Iredell brought to light what I consider one of the most remarkable discoveries ever made in the School — the ability of little children to rapidly write words and sentences upon the blackboard under the impulse of thought.

I could not name one of the present faculty without naming them all; each one joins in the investigations with the utmost zeal and persistence. Most of them are well known to American teachers through their books and discussions of special subjects. / No one will misunderstand these lines by supposing that the ^ School claims originality in either discoveries or methods. The

Preface. ' v

rule is, that whatever any teacher effectively applies, he must discover for himself.

The psychology of Herbart, and the doctrine of Concentration enunciated and applied by his disciples, Ziller, Stoy, and Rein, have been a source of inspiration and a guide in the general direction of the work.

I must not fail to mention another never-failing source, the fundamental dbcti'ine out of which, as a germ, the principles of Concentration are being developed; that is, the teachings of the founder of. the Kindergarten — Froebel. From him we get the sublime idea of the unity of the human spirit; the vmity of creation and the Creator: all life for one life, and each for all.

The faculty of the Cook County Normal School has had one great advantage : as one corps of teachers they have worked earnestly and honestly to find and apply the truth under the working hypothesis of Concentration; at every step, changes and modifications have been made, devices have been given up and new ones cheerfully accepted, materials and topics have been arranged and rearranged.

The initial steps in this work have been taken, and enough has been done to prove that the direction is right. The doctrine of Concentration in itself is a science of education that will absorb the attention of thoughtful teachers for centuries; it contains an ideal that is infinite in its possibilities.

The study of education as a science is imperatively demanded of all teachers who beliere that the common school is the central means to preserve and perpetuate true democracy. The teacher's profession is one day to stand at the head of all professions. It will take its true place when teachers exalt it by honest efficient study of the laws of being and a wise and courageous application of the truth found.

This book is a contribution to those of the profession who see an endless vista of better things for the children. The questions appended, the contents and marginal headings, are to lead vi Preface.

students to a better understanding of the text, and above all, a just and righteous criticism.

I am more than Avilling to see every principle here enunciated fall to the ground under logical and convincing reason. Some one has said that the greatest invention of the nineteenth century is the "suspended judgment." I sincerely trust that in publishing this book I shall not in any way compromise my attitude towards truth by clinging to any statement here made when it is shown to be incorrect, or when something better is presented.

Francis W. Parker.

Cook County Normal School, Jan. 23, 1894.

Chapter I. — The Child 3

Unity— What is the child?— The organism determines the development- External energies— Spontaneous aetivities—Music—Faucy— Creative power- Myth- What is the myth?— Development of the myth in the race— Myth the beginning of history — Myth and science- Myth the beginning of religion— Santa Clans— Myth the beginning, truth the end— The child studies anthropology— The child and history— Zoology— Botany— Comparisons— Physics— Meteorology— Mineralogy— Geography— The child is spontaneously interested in all subjects of thouglit— Limitations of the environment — Tlie child's physical acquirements ia the first three years of its life— Learning language— Idioms— The child is unconscious of tlie forms of attention and expression— Learning to write— Form— Preparation to learn number— Unity of action— The child full of activity— Modes of expression — Manual work — The child a born artist — Lessons taught by a study of the child's spontaneous activities— Following nature— What the child loves— Dead forms.

Chapter II. — Central Subjects op Study 25

Brief definitions of education— Economy of educative efloi-t— Wasted effort —Purpose of the doctrine of concentration— Unity— Central subjects— All study is study of the invisible— Geography— Definition of geography— Necessity of exact definitions- Geology— Prof. Chamberlin's illustration— Relation of geography to geology— Effect and cause— Instinctive action of the child— Psychological definition of geography— Opportunities to study geology and geography —Mineralogy— Opportunities to study mineralogy— Relation of mineralogy to geology— Relation of mineralogy to geography— Change— Physics and chemistry—The atmosphere— Sunshine and heat^Definition of meteorology— Subjects that relate to sciences of inorganic matter— Relation of the sciences of inorganic matter to life— Environment of life— Botany— Dependence of plant-life upon its environment— Dependence of living organisms upon their environment—The record of paleontology— Coverings of animals— Primary study of zoology— Anthropology— Community hfe— Ethnology— The Aryan race— Effects of structure upon peoples -Ethnology— Earth as the home of man— Influence of structure— Psychological relation of history to geography— Memory— The child begins all these subjects instinctively— Relation of form to the central

vii viii Contents.

subjects— Knowledg:e of form indispensab'.e to all study— Number— Unity of central subjects in function — Cause and effect — Natural law — All study is a study of natural laws or God's laws— Unity of studies.

Chapter III.— Form as a Mode of Judgment . . . .47

Resunig- Sp ice filled with matter— Definition of an object— All is everlasting change— Matter does not change itself— Energy— Laws of energy— Form, the product of energy— The qualities of an object determine the qualities of energy which acts through it— The senses— Smell and taste— Hearing— Sight- Touch— Knowledge of form tlie product of the tactual sense— All senses are tactual — All the senses evolved out of the sense of touch — Laura Bridgman — Helen Kellar— Touch, the subtile sense— Conscious activities non-spacial— The two mysteries : matter and life— Knowledge of form indispensable to the knowledge of energy— Crudeness of iodividual concepts — Agassiz and his pupils — Form as a mode of judgment— Educative value of form concepts— Imagination —Dependence of the products of observation upon the products of the imagination—Relative value of crude concepts— Imagination the power to go beyond the sense grasp— Geometry— Mathematical geography— Froehel- Countless opportunities to study form— Weakness of students in power to imagine— Study of form of living organisms— Real forms and typical forms— Geometry in grammar schools— Conclusions.

Chapter IV.— Number and its Eelation to the Central Subjects 63

Prominence of arithmetic in education— Progress in teaching arithmetic — Discovery of arithmetic— Arithmetic essential to all human progress— Importance of arithmetic in all practical matters— The truly practical— What is number ?— Preparation for numbers by a child's spontaneous activities— Beginnings of number — Necessity of careful definitions— Form and size— Size — The child's first attempts to know distance — Distance, area, volume — Creeping and walking —Necessity of exact measurements— Necessity of accuracy and exactness- Relation of form to size— Number in geography— Areas of continents— Opportunities for exercising the judgment in numbering- Imagination— Arithmetic in mathematical geography — Seek the centre — Density and weight— Size and weight— J] ensuring forces— Time— History— Single things— Feeling of right- Equivalent values— Money— Selfishness cultivated by a prolonged study of money values— Relation of arithmetic to the sciences— Relation to geography- Feeling the necessity of number— Mere recollection without judgment— Practical application of all number study to the study of all the central subjects.

Chapter V. — What can be done with Numbers? . . .81

Investigation as to the nature of numbers— All that can be done with a number— Division— Division of a number into equal parts— The difference between dividing a number into equal numbers and dividing a number into equal parts — Great importance of understanding this diffeience — Subtraction— Three kinds of division — What can be done with numbers? — Numbers can be united- Definitions of the five operations— Definition of division illustrated— Partition- Partition defined— Factors in partition— Partition illustrated— Subtraction deflned— Multiphcation defined— Definition of multiplication illustrated— Addition —Attention called to the truth of the definitions— Should an arithmetical sentence

Contents. ix

mean two things?— Is the quotient in arithmetic an abstract number?— We learn to judge by judging— Definition of attention— So-called facts of number matters of mere recollection— Exercise of judgment— Development of number in the race— How should the numbering faculty be developed in the child? — Begin with the actual knowledge of the child— What is it to know number?— What numerical facts should be known automatically?— Numerical facts that should be known automatically, classified — How should automatic knowledge be acquired?— Children should learn number by counting money— Relation of number to drill— Teaching the five operations together— Illustrations of Llie relation of the five operations — Notation and numeration— Fractions — Necessities of mental action determine what should be taught— Illogical arrangement of subjects in the text-books— Complex forms, confusion of terms— Fractions should be taught at every step— Decimal fractions— U. S. money— Compound numbers— Practical subjects and educational subjects are a unit— Percentage . — Interest — Proportion— Square root — Cube root.

Chapter VI.— Attention 107

Tentatively defined— Relation of external energies to the mind— Light- Sound— Elementary idea— Matter— External attribute— Correspondence to an attribute— The brain determines the energies which may act through it— Specialized functions of the brain — Action of attributes — Function of the brain— Mental action and brain action— Cause and effect— The child born deaf, dumb, and blind —Units of elementary ideas— Analysis of external olijefts— Automatic action of external objects— Instantaneous action of objects — Synthesis, association, unification, recollection, the same mental act— Analysis, comparison, classification —Attitude of the body and mind in sense action— Inhibition— Errors arising from not understanding the unconscious process of synthesis — Creation of elementary ideas— Recapitulation— What is an educative act?— Spontaneous activity and intense activity, discriminated— An act of attention defined— The ego— An act of conscious intensity illustrated— Limitations of the ego- Hemming states of consciousness —Power of attention— Acts of attention in reading— Definition re-stated— Education by self-activity— Limitations of self-activity— Three modes of attention— Thinking not in itself educative— Each state of consciousness consists of all the kinds of possible conscious action — Synthesis — Inference — Intensity of conscious activities— The three modes of attention defined- Educative value of an act of observation— Individual concept —Two classes of objects— A symbol— Appropriate activities— Corresponding activities—Symbolic action of all objects— Immediate efliect of symbols— Effect of words illustrated— Law of word functioning— Two classes of symbols— Partial symbols— Pure symbols— Process of functioning a symbol— Hearing-language— Reading defined— Function of observation— The body an instrument of attention—An act of attention analyzed— Motive explained— Physical attitude of attention— Unity of the whole being in an act of attention— LTnity of action illustrated— Attention in physical training — Motive of physical training— Great importance of perfect unity in acts of attention— How unscientific teaching can destroy the unity of action— The least possible attention to the forms of words — Interest overcoming difficulties — The habit of attention — Brain exhaustion by acts of attention — Too long continued acts of attention exhaust the body and weaken the mind— Muscular exercise— Cultivated power of attention— Habit of ^.ttention very slowly cultivated— Great mistake in cultivating attention— Watch

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the child— Following one series of subjects— The child begins all subjects spontaneously—The danger of trjMng to exhaust one subject, illustrated— Prejudgments—Teaching— Definition of education— No one can really ever study a sub-- ject without loving that subject — Goal of all true study.

Chapter VII.— Observation 141

Observation defined-" Correspondence "— " Individual concept "—" Individual "—Relation of the ego to the external objects— Definitions— External attribute— Elementary idea— Individual concept— Relation of elementary ideas and individual concepts to knowledge — Inference, recognition, analysis, comparison, classification, generalization— Crude individual concepts— An adequate concept defined- All analyses and comparisons depend upon individual concepts —Classification— Adequate concepts purely ideal— Practical value of individual concepts — External energies which act upon consciousness— Sense products undervalued — The savage — Why the savage is not educated — Motive — Acuteness ' and sharpness not education— Motives compared— Hypothesis of evolution- Symbols— Educative value of the study of books— Books the means of perpetuating human authority — The educative value of reading and observation compared— Divine power of external energies — Myth — Myth, the pathway to truth — Human and divine authority— Goethe— The study of history— Scientific hisl:ory — What is true history? — Personal experience the one basis of judgment — "He ■who possesses the youth, possesses the future "—Dogmatic teaching— Science— Text-books upon science— Wrecks of theories— Danger of text-book science— The "suspended judgment " — Definition of education — Inertia and ciii-iositj- — Observation a means of cultivating love for truth — Laboratories of science— Plea for children's laboratories— Ignorance of teachers the reason why science is not taught to little children— Should a child go through the experiences of the race? — No royal road to learning — Immutable laws— All education liy self-educative effort — What the past has brought the child— The delusion of books — Economy of energy— Education defined— Wasted energy — Conscious acts of observation and of imagination the same in kind— Imagination — Relation of imagination to observation— Observing powers of great scientists— Reading not the key to all knowledge — Reading and imagination — Vague conscious activities — Getting the thought of the author not scientific— Quality of acts of imagination— Text-book geography — Field excursions — Text-books in natural science — The text-book of nature— Opportunities to study nature— Loving nature— Literature for children —Genuineness— Inspiratioa of all great authors— Relation of the products of observation to all study and thinking— Ethical use of science— Elementary science should be taught throughout the whole school course— Opportunities for studying science— Geography— Geology— Meteorology— Zoology— History— That which is of most use is least taught — Newfangled notions— One study — Humility.

Chapter VIII.— Language and Hearing -language . . . 173

Relation of thought to language— Relation of the body to the mind— Effect of emotions— Influence of the body upon the mind— The mind creates the body —The relation of language to a people— Dialect defined— The origin of language — Language indicates civilization — Philology — Language indicates environment —The value of the study of dead languages- Greek— Relation of literature to history— How a child learns language— Hearing-language and speech two things

Contents. xi

—Obstacles which a child overcomes in learning to hear language— Pronunciation, enunciation, and articulation— Mastery of idioms— Function of a word— Voice— Articulate sounds— Pronunciation analyzed— Functioning words— Law by which words are learned— Appropriate activities— Law re-stated— Relation of intensity to repetitions— Interest— The child conscious of the whole word only — Illustrations— How idioms are learned — Relation of words to tliought — What a child acquires in three years— How parents teach children to hear language- Adaptation of language to thought— The word " natural "—Imitation— How should language teaching be continued when a child enters school? — Language should conform to thought— Grammar — How shall grammar be taught?— Uses of language— No necessity for purely formal study— New conditions of education.

Chapter IX. — Reading and its Relations to the Central Subjects 188

Reading as a mode of attention— Reading not to be confounded with oral reading— Value of reading— Reading in itself not moral— The educative value- Reading the greatest factor in education— Reading not getting the author's thought— Reading defined— Relation of reading to study— Function of reading— A word is an object— Correspondence of a word— The word and the sentence- Study of psycliology— Instantaneous action of a word— Functioning of words— The law by which every word is learned— One act of association not generally sufficient to function a word— Guide in learning method— Principles— The word the obstacle to be overcome— Short sketch of the history of teaching reading- Alphabet method— Phonic and phonetic methods— Tlioiight method— Or6is picfus— Normal Worter-Methode— Word method— Gallaudet, Webb, Farnham— Emotions of pleasure aroused by appropriate activities— The will— Interest- Difficulties overcome by the child in learning oral language— The oral word more complex than the written word— What the child brings to the \\ ork of learning to read— What does the child love best?— Natural science— Language should grow with the thought— Unconscious acquirement— Intense mental action— Writing— Time spent in teaching reading— Theory of concentration- Teaching reading talies no appreciable time— An old hypotliesis— Hypothesis of concentration- Reproduction of tliought — Transference of habit — Imitation — Making unnecessary difficulties— Unity of action — First oral reading — Relation of oral language to reading— Assistance of the oral word in teaching reading- A, B, C method— Mental action absorbed in form— Voice of the child an indication of a wrong method— Phonic method— Phonetic method— Wi-itten English language fearfully and wonderfully made — Phonetic methods— Apparent results — Unity of action broken — The word method not a Chinese method — Psychology of seeing objects— Attention to form obstructs mental action— Absorption of the mind in educative thought— Right use of phonics— Unity of action not broken —Power of analogy— True use of woids— Study— Learning pages verbatim— The pedant— Use of reading in education — Interest in reading continually strengthened— Concentration of reading upon central subjects — Children should read nothing but literatm-e— Pronunciation of words not reading.

Chapter X. — Modes op Expression 223

Attention and expression in evolution— Relation of attention and expression —Modes of expression— Products of expression— Language— Tools and instruxii Contents.

ments— Art products— Marks of tratisition from one stage of society to another — The greatest product of attention and expression — Important questions— Motive in expression— Relation of motive to thought— Physical exercise— Influence of skill— Relation of expression to attention— Gesture— Gesture a primitive mode of expression— Relation of gesture to voice— Relation of gesture to music —Gesture and the conceptive modes of expression— Gesture and grace— Voice — Rhytlim— Articulate voice — Voice and music — Function of music — Music a means of spiritual growth — Relation of music to speech — Vocal music a physical exercise— Music cultivates the emotions— Blaking— Making defined— Products of making— Self-preservation— Analysis of making as a mode of expression- Making as a means of physical strength— Conceptive modes of expression— Art modes of expression- Origin of art— Art and religion— Different uses of art— Hieroglyphics— Imitation— Copying not educative— Function of making— Function of ai't in education— Educative values of the conceptive modes of expression—Partial symbols— Materials used in art— Relation of the diiferent modes of art expression— Function of art to express thought — Landscape painting — Individual concept and its relation to forms of expression— Sequence of the three art modes— Physical culture in art expression— Grace— Educative use- Relation of the ait modes of expression to speech— Speech— Speech defined— Language— Obstacles to be overcome in learning to speak — Imitation — Countless opportunities for exercise— Spontaneous acquisition of grammar— Language a mark of individual growth— Influetice of speech upon the being— Writing—Writing the simplest mode of expression— Devices for teaching penmanship —Thought and writing— Speech and writing compared— Motive in writing- Motive in all the modes of expression— Relation of the modes of expression to each other— Froebel's ideal— Relation of modes of expression to the education of the individual— Can any one of the modes be omitted ?— Ideal of the republic- Personal freedom— Empirical argument for manual training— Educated incapables— Laziness— The child a born worker— Educative work— Study of text-books—Hand-work of to-day— Moral tendency of manual training— Reading, writing, and arithmetic— Relation of manual training to other studies— Should the art modes of expression be tauglit iu the common schools ?— Vocation- Modes of expression as a means of character study — Conclusion.

Chapter XI.— Unity of Expressive Acts 261

Economy of energy— Freedom— Self-effort— Over-eifort— Unity of action- Unity of action in r.ttention— Functioning of the whole being— Unity of action defined— Teaching defined—Training— Skill— Reaction of expression— Isolated action— Grace— Elements of grace— Ease— Precision— Restriction and tension- Illustrations of the law of ease and equilibrium— Courage— The rifle— Ploughman —The mower— Blacksmith— The wood-chopper and penman— Overstraining— Grace and awkwardness— Order of development— Equilibrium— The trained soldier— Delsarte— Diffusion of strength— Danger of training the extremities first— Isolation of agents— Genuineness— Children illustrate genuineness— Voices of children— The orator— Wendell Phillips— The actor— Salvini— Illustrations of unity of action— The school that could write beautifully— Could not express thought— Nature's training— Oral reading— Broken unity— A made gesture—Delsarte— Verbal recitation— A list of means to break unity of action- Psychological explanation of broken unity— Why pupils who wrote so well could not express thotight by writing— Self-consciousness— Self-consciousness defined —Pedantry— Cultivation of self-consciousness— Flattery— Public declamation—

Contents. xiii

Fear— False modesty— Illustrations of unnecessary fear— Fear constraining the mind— Self-conceit— Successful men who were dull boys— Sissy Jupe and Bitzer— The great transgression-Prizes— Flat-copy drawing— Overburdening— Educative work healthful — Overburdening caused by mental drudgery — Self-consciousness a disease — The first hypothesis — The second hypothesis — Is it possible to overcome self-consciousness?— Wasted energy— Self-confidence destroyed—Fear of making a mistake— Dull boys—" We do not want any thinking here "—Effect of motive— Influence of the teacher's skill— The best substitute for skill — Considerations that will lead a teacher to study — Motive alone will overcome self-consciousness — How motive may be changed — The wrong motive —Altruistic motive preserves unity of action.

Chapter XII.— Acquisition of the Forms of Thought Expression 288

Two hypotheses— First hypothesis illustrated— Penmanship— Grammar- Spelling— Arithmetic— Art— Music— Elocution— The time taken for formal study —Second hypothesis illustrated— Concentration upon intrinsic thought— Motive —Thought intensified — Technical difQculties overcome— Writing — Technical grammar— Number— Voice— Art— Economy— Physical training— Possibilities of knowledge enhanced— Changes brought about under the second liypothesis— Speech acquired under the second hypothesis— Baby babblings- Making— Making without- motive— Questions in the discussion— Opportunities for the development of skill— Is the technique adapted to the ability of the child ?— Adequacy of skill— Opportunities for the exercise of art— Geography— Modeling in sand- Chalk modeling— Demand for exact correspondence— Copying maps not art

Every teacher an art critic— Geology— Mineralogy— Apparatus-making— Botany —Painting— Courage to be crude— Zoology— History— Countless opportunities for expression of thought— Comparison of results— Best method to develop skill —Logical arrangement— Illustrations— Logical arrangement wrong— Sequence of difficulties perfect— Crudeness of concepts— Genuineness— Flat-copy drawing —Flat-copy study versus nature study— Accuracy abnormal— Confidence of the child— How to criticise— Do not destroy self-confidence— Critical power should keep pace with skill— Education is the generation of power— The typical method —Induction and deduction— The modeling, painting, and drawing of typical forms, mafcing— Development of art feeling- Cultivate genuineness- Art for art's sake— Theory of concentration in art— Direction of art studies— Drawing introduced for commercial value— Pioneers of art teaching— Art awaits the teacher.

Chapter XIIL— Speech and Writing 308

Gesture— Vocal music— Conceptive modes— Speech and writing— Mechanics of speech— Enunciation— Articulation— Accent— Pronunciation— The idiom— Pauses— Syntax and etymology— Attributes of voice— Imitation— Hearing-language—Learning to talk— Thought energy— Spontaneous factors of the voice- Unity of action- All improved methods spring from the knowledge of the child's spontaneous activities— Nature's methods— Writing— When should a child begin to write?— Analysis of penmanship— What a child brings to the work of learning to write— Learning to talk and learning to write compared— Best possible position for writing— Smooth line— Desk— Chair— Position in regard to desk— Forearm— Paper— Wrist— Pen— The angle of 51° to 52°— Pi'inciples of the American handwriting— Finger movement— Rough lines— Deformed hand— Making the slant with the finger movement— English "pot-hooks and hangers"— xiv Contents.

Eeasons against the finger movement— Diffusion of nerve currents— Slate writing— Uuhealthful positions— Making the slant with the fluger unnatural —Argument in favor of vertical writing— Best vertical writing by the arm movement— First hypothesis— Methods of fluger movement— Copy-books- Written spelling— Compositions— Tracing letters— Second hypothesis— Method under second hypothesis — Writing acquired precisely as speech is acquired — Fundamental principle of arm movement— Method of teaching children to write, illustrated— Copying not allowed— Writing original sentences— Reading script and print— Method not an easy one for the teacher— Penmanship of the teacher — The organic circuit — A wonderful discovery — Oral reading— Motive in oral reading— Arguments against slow writing— Slow writing not educative- Educative writing explained— Arguments in favor of rapid writing— Spelling, pronunciation, and capitalization— Arm movement healthful— Skill in writing sunk into the automatic — Function of speech and writing— Relative value of speech and writing — Rapid writing to be used in all recitations— Preservation of written work— Eight years' practice in speech and writing— Methods of teaching grammar — Purpose of teaching grammar — English a grammarless language — Method of teaching grammar as an essential factor in all teaching— Correct language— The child's incorrect use of language — Rules, definitions, parsing, analysis—Ordei' of teaching the accidents of gi-ammar— Use of parsing and analysis —Economy of plan— Oral reading— Motive in oral reading— Criticism of reading —Function of oral reading— Bad effects of divorcing words from thought— Is it possible to preserve the child's beauty of speech? — The child unconscious of forms of expression— Fundamental rule for teaching oral reading— Can broken unity of action be restored?— Art of questioning— Cunclusion.

Chaptek XIV.— School Government and Moral Training . 337

Purpose of school— Method— Teaching and training— Community life- Fundamental rule of order— Test of a school— Initial steps in order— Highest qualification of a teacher— Courage— Skill— Knowledge of the individual— Tact— Trivialities— Work— Order defined- Selection of subjects— History— True patriotism—Selection of subjects in history— Biography— Science— Selection of subjects in science — Immediate us^ of knowledge — Civics — Mutual influence— Class recitation— Motive of the teacher— Effects of recitation— Conditions for moral training— Glory of the common schools— Ethics— Ethics of Sloyd— Telling the truth— Order and moral training identical — Working hypothesis of moral training— Realization of possibilities — Character — No separation of intellectual and moral ti-aining — Law and morals — Morality of method — The altruistic motive — Utilitai'ian doctrine— Vox populi, vox Dei— Limits of selfishness— Education and the altruistic motive— All truth is needed by man— Development of motive is education— Altruistic motive appeals to the child— The truth shall make you free— Teaching— Choice— Present nothing but good— Detection of counterfeit coins— Training of the will— The will trained by doing— The value of an act of the wilt — Attention — Literature — Exercises in expression — Imagination — Keep the child unconscious of his motive — Text-books of morals — Value of righteousness— Sloyd— Delight in expression— Necessity gives zest to life — Mental faculties— Emotions — Emotions of pleasure — Watch the child's mind— Original inference the test of mental power— Relation of original inference to knowledge- Quality of mental action— Intensity of action— Original inference the measure of power— Delight in search for truth- Opportunities for moral and ethical action— Ai-e wrong principles and methods immoral ?— Incorrect methods—

Contents. xv

Dominating the will— The teacher's will, the child's will— Home tyranny— Unnatural discipline in schools — Destroying- power to reason — The short road to order— Arbitrary forces and means of discipline— Reason and will— Corporal punishment- Old-fashioned corporal punishment— Method of rewards, presents, prizes, and promotions— Systematic cultivation of self-consciousness — Cultivation of ambition— Educated tosell—Prize-giviug— Prize giving ihe rewarding of an ancestor— Prize-giving the despair of weak children— Abnormal activity- Corporal punishment — Reward-giving is bribery — God gives rewards — Cause of corporal punishment and rewards^" Thi'ee R's " — Total depravity— Reward-giving in Sunday-school— The kingdom of heaven is within you— Scientific truth and sacred truth -Seeking for the truth :s moral action— Special moral training in the schools — Lack of educative work— Children lost from total neglect.