Sunshine and Showers: Their Influences Throughout Creation. A Compendium of ...

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Preface

This work is not the account of a "vacation ramble/' but still something that may be considered analogous. I was led to its composition by the study of the Hygro- METER during the summer of last year. Every chapter is therefore, as it were, a meditation or contemplation radiating from that central subject, the importance of which I have laboured to demonstrate by theory and practice.

I need scarcely state that I have endeavoured to exhaust the topic in all its meteorological bearings, availing myself of all sources of information, especially the great work of Luke Howard, the Father of British Meteorology,^ My object has been to make the book entertaining as well as instructive ; and it will be found

1 * The Climate of London.'

Vm PREFACE.

replete with practical suggestions which may be useful to all classes of readers^ whilst the leading topic — the curiosities of the weather and weather-wisdom — is, I trust, explained with a fullness never before attempted, as may appear by a glance at the Table of Contents.

Andrew Steinmetz.

Chapter I

THB mflVEESAL BELIEF IN THE POSSIBILITY OF PBEDlCTINa THE WEATHEB.

PAGE

Public Opinion on the subject. — ^Views of the Ancients and all races of men thereon. — ^Weather Almanacs.— Murjjhy's great Success. — ^Eeasonableness of the Belief.— Intuitive Weather Prognostics. — The Sensations of the Lower Animals in Changes of Weather. — Man relies on his Instruments. — Importance of the Hygeometeb 1

CHAPTER IL

THE ABBAirGEMENT OF THE ATM08FHEBE.

Nature of the Atmosphere. — Sunshine. — ^*'What Moves the RailwaY-carria^e ?'* — Pressure and Elasticity of the Air. — Depth and Vapour of the Atmosphere. — Wondrous Effects of Heat ..;...... 9

CHAPTER in.

THE HOISTUBE IN THE AIB, OB HYGBOHETSY.

Increase and Decrease of Diurnal Moisture in the Air. — The March of a Day's Hygrometrv. — Maximum and Minimum of Humidity. — The Dew Point. — The Cloud Area of the Skies.-^The Hygrometry of the Arctic Regions . 18

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

THB INFLUENCE OF THE DIFFERENT WINDS IN THE PBODUCTION OF SUNSHINE AND SHOWERS.

PAOE

The Process of Drying. — Influence of the Different Winds. —Contrast between Winter and Summer. — The Sources of our Eain. — The Driest and Wettest Months. — The effect of Moisture in the Air. — Importance of a Good Aspect to Fanners.— Absorption of Air by Water . . . 29

CHAPTER V.

THE HYGROMETEB, ITS RULES AND WEATHER INDICATIONS.

Old Substitutes for the Hygrometer. — ^AU Substances more or less Hygrometric. — The Hair- Hygrometer. — De Luc's Hygrometer. — The Beard of Wild- Oat Hygrometer.— Regnault's Hygrometer. — The Dry and Wet Bulb Hygrometer. — Principle of the Hygrometer. — Our Skin a Natural Hygrometer. — Calculation of the Dew Point. — The Bule3 of the JJyor/'owc^er.— Important Considerations in Judging of the Weather by the Hygrometer. — The Indications of the Hygrometer compared with those of the Barometer. — How to find the Degree of Humidity hj the Hygrometer. — How to find the Force of Evaporation. — Table of Force of Vapour and Evaporating Force . 42

CHAPTER VI.

cloud-land, its COMPOSITION AND COMMOTIONS.

The Capacity of Air for Water.— The Nature of Fog.— Meteorological Import of Fog. — ^London Fog. — ^Dry Fog and Arctic Fogs.— The Two Spheres of Vapour. — Distinction between Fog or Mist and Cloud, — Clouds. — The Battle of the Clouds. — Composition of Thunderstorms. — Weather Signs from Fogs, Mists, and Clouds. — Storm and Calm in the Arctic Eegions 64

CHAPTER VH.

THE CURIOSITIES OP RAINPALL IN ENGLAND AND OF EUROPE IN GENERAL.

The Periods of the Wettest Years.— Theory of Rainfall.— Line of Maximum Rainfall. — The Consequence of Depriving a Country of its Trees.— Importance of Planting

CONTENTS. XI

FAGS

British Oat.— General Eainfall of England.— The Pro- T-erb " Drought never did hurt to England '* explained. — Periodicitjr of Wet Harvests. — Annual Quantity of Eain in Countries. — The Utmost quantity of Kain that can fall over all the Earth. — The Miraculous Nature of the Eain of the Deluge Demonstrated. — The Quantity of Bain influenced by the Height of Localities. — Eain Gauges. — The Measurement of Snow. — Steinmetz's Seduction Snow Gauge 87

CHAPTEE Vni.

WET AND DET TEASS.

Centenary coincidence of Wet Years. — The Sources and Theory of our Eains. — Distribution of Eainfall in the British Isles. — Influence of Drainage on Eainfall. — The Ancient Climate of England. — The Decline of Water Power in England. — Influence of Trees on Eainfall. — How to Preserve the " Flood Waters." — How to Manage a Wet Harvest 107

CHAPTEE IX,

OP TEMPEEATUEB AND MOISTUEE IN THE MATTEE OF HEALTH IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Importance of the Thermometer to Physicians. — Connection of Temperature with the Death-roll. — Connection of Cholerine with Temperature. — Wet Seasons not the Unhealthiest. — Sanitary use of the Hygrometer. — Horticidtural Use of the Hygrometer. — How to Match the Climate of Plants 120

CHAPTEE X.

THE WONDEBS OP EVAPOEATION, AND ITS SIGNS IN PBOGNOSTICATING THE WEATHEE.

Universality of Watery Vapour. — The Immense Energy of Watery Vapour. — Annual Evaporation of the Temperate Zone. — Importance of Noting Evaporation. — Causes that Increase or Diminish Evaporation. — Weather Signs from Evaporation. — Instance of Diminished Evaporation.—* Evaporation in Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. — Eules for the Evaporation Gauge, — Steinmetz's Vapo- BiMETEE.— Average Evaporation and Eainfall of the

Xll CONTBKTS.

Months iu London.— IleasoiiB for Using an Evaporation Gauge 131

CHAPTER XI.

THE TEICPEBATUBE OF THE SOIL.

Every Wind has its Weather. — The Direction of Winds. — The Variety of Winds Explained.— The Influence of Winds on the Soil. — Temperature of the Soil. — Appropriation of Solar Heat. — Ground Thermometers. — Monthly Temperature of the Soil. — Advantage of Deep Subsoil Cultivation 14i7

CHAPTER XII.

THE EFFECT OF DBAINAGE ON THE TEMFEBATUBE OF SOILS, THE CLIMATE, AND BAINFALL.

Showers apparently; Attracted by Particular Soils. — The Tweeddale Experiments. — Effect of Drainage on Arable Lands. — Effect of Warm and Cold Rains. — The Temperature of Drained and Undrained Lands. — Advantages of Drainage . .• 156

CHAPTER Xin.

THE INFLUENCE OF TBEE8 ON CLIMATE, WATEE SUPPLY, AND BAINFALL.

Importance of the Subject. — The Destruction of Forests in all times. — Modern Clearance of Forests in France. — How this Concerns us in England. — How Man Alters the Weather. — The Benefit of Trees. — Trees Precipitate Moisture. — Effect of Trees on Temperature, Springs and Streams. — Conclusions as to the Effect of Clearing out Woods and Forests 170

CHAPTER XIV.

HOW TO PB0ONO8TICATE THE SEASONS.

Signs of the Weather at the Equinoxes. — How Farmers may Compensate themselves for Bad Harvests. — Signs of the Harvest from the Winds. — The Prevalent Winds of England. — ^Why the West End of London and other

CONTENTS. xm

PAGB

Cities is Healthier .than tlje ISast End, — How to Count on the Winds. — Periodicity of Good Harvest Years. — The Sign of a Grood. Harvest Year. — Signs from the Weather of the Spring Months. — Signs from Summer, Autumn, and Winter. — Farmers should ^ote the Winds. — Hint to the Proprietors of the Islington Cattle Market 182

CHAPTER XV.

CHABACTEBI8TICS AND METEOBOLOGY OF THE SEASONS.

I. WiNTEB. — Characteristics of Winter. — Plants and Birds of Winter.— Meteorology of Winter. — Winter Floods. — Winter Clouds. — The Phenomena of Snow, Rime, Hoar- Frost.— Winter Weather.—The Great Frost of 1814.— Murphy's Prediction of the Coldest Day in 1838.— His Pre(uctions for all the Year tested ........ 196

II. Spbino. — Characteristics of Spring. — Insects, Flowers, and Birds of Spring. — Meteorology of Spring. — The Great Thunderstorm in 1809. — The Path of Thunderstorms. — How the French Prevent a Thunderstorm. — How Man otherwise Counteracts the Elements {Note). — Further Meteorological Data of Spring. — The Clouds of Spring. — When to Expect the First Heats in Spring 210

III. SuMMEB. — Characteristics of Summer. — Birds and Flowers of Summer. — Meteorology of Summer. — Summer Signs of Weather. — Don't wait "for the Weather to Settle." — Cause of our Wet Summers. — The Summer Thunderstorm. — Utility of the Hygrometer in Summer . 228

IV. Autumn. — Characteristics of Autumn. — Departure and Coming of Birds. — Autumn Flowers. — Meteorology of Autumn. — The Genial Weather of Early Autumn. — Autumn Gossamer^ Dews, and Fog. — Remarkable Fog in 1828.— The Gales of Autumn.— The Great Storm of November 26th, 1703.— -Meteorological Teachings of the Great Storm. — The Monthly Meteorological Means of London 237

CHAPTER XVI.

HOW TO INTEBPBBT THE BABOKBTEB AND THE THEBKOHETBB.

WTiat Causes the Mercury to Rise and Fall ? — Important Hint in Consulting the Barometer. — Rules of the Baro^ meter. — Anomalies of Barometric Pressure. — ^Rules of the Thermometer. — The Terrestrial Radiation Thermometer . 255

XIV CONTENTS.

CHAPTER. XVII.

FOFXTLAB WEATHEB FBOONOSTICS EXPLAINED.

PAGB

The Marquis of Tweeddale's Prize on the subject. — The Earliest Writers on Weather Progjnostics. — Prognostics from Mists and Fogs. — Signs from the Appearances of the Sky. — Prognostics from Dew. — Prognostics from Clouds. — Signs from Looming and Haziness. — Signs from the Moon, Sun, Haloes, etc. — Signs from Sound. — The Duration of Frosts. — Signs from the Colours of the !Rainbow. — Signs from the Moon. — Effect of Tides. — Signs from Animals. — Signs from Salt, Soot, Fire, Smoke .... 271

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE WEATHEB ON WOOD, AND HOW TO FBEVENT IT.

Why the Chairs and Tables Crack. — ^What Causes Wood to Swell. — Probable future Scarcity of Wood. — Wood Preserved by Carbonization. — The Method Described. — General Utility of the Process 294

CHAPTER XIX.

THE BUFFOSED INFLUENCE OP THE SAINTS ON THE WEATHEB; FEBIODICITT OF CHOLEBA AND ITS ATH08FHBBIC CAUSE.

Popular Weather Maxims explained by Science. — Special Saints* Days and the Weather. — St. Swithin's Day. — The " Icy Saints " and the " Indian Summer." — Shooting Stars. — Influence of the Shooting Stars. — Periodicid Perturbations of Temperature. — Periodicity of Cholera , 302

CHAPTER XX.

THE CUBIOSITIES OF LIGHTNING.

Universality of Electricity. — Electrical Condition of the Human Body. — Electrici^ of our Apartments. — The Lightning Conductor. — The Statistics of Lightning Stroke8.--Immunity of Women from Lightning Strokes. — Electric condition of Objects struck. — The Odour of Lightning. — Lightning Figures. — Breath Figures. — The Mystery of Lightning Figures Explained.— Fulgurites. — A Live Thunderbolt found at last. — Corposants. — St. Elme'fl Fire 313

CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER XXI.

ARTIFICIAL BAIN ; 8H0WEBS OP BLOOD, COBN, SULPHUB, FB0G8, BUBNT FAPEB, SOOT OB BLACK BAIN, ETC. ; HONEY DEW.

PAGB

'Rain caused by Heavy Cannonading. — How to bring down !Rain in Drought. — Proposal to Electrify the Atmosphere. — Apparatus for Electrifying the Air. — Showers of Blood,. Progs, Soot, etc. — Whirlwinds. — Showers of Burnt Paper. — Honey Dew, its Origin and the Means of Preventing it 332

CHAPTER XXII.

A HETEOBOLO&IC^L GABDEN AND FLOBa's CLOCK.

Connexion between Meteorology and Botany. — The Signi- Hcauce of Flowers to Linnseus. — Dependence of Plants on the Atmosphere. — Electricity the Prime Mover in Vitality. — The Electroscope. — How Plants Foretell the Weather. — Flowers that show Coming Weather. — Flora's Clock. — Electric Action of Plants. — The Barbarous Names given to Flowers . 344

CHAPTER XXIII.

ANEMOMBTBY; OB THE DIBECTION, FOBCB, AND VELOCITY OF THE WIND.

Segular Movement in the Atmosphere. — Effect of the Moon on the Sap of Plants, etc. — Coincidences of the Moon's Phases with Bad Weather. — Importance of Ascertaining the Force of Wind — The Velocity and Force of Winds. — Tracing a Wind in its Travels. — Hypothesis of the Winds. — Advantage of the Electric Telegraph for Storm Warnings.— The Atlantic Telegraph might be of great avail for the purpose. — The Wreck Register. — The Inventor of the Anemometer. — Robinson's Anemometer. — Hewlett's Anemograph. — Casella's Self-Recording Embossing Anemometer. — Advantage of Self-Recording Instruments. — Areas of Barometric Pressure. — FuUbrook's Theory of Storms. — A Hint to Agriculturists .... 359

CHAPTER XXIV,

WHAT BECOMES OF THE SUNSHINE?

What 18 the Sun P— Spectrum Analysis. — The Spectroscope.

rvi CONTENTS.

PA.QB

— Stellar Chemistry. — Early Glimpse of the Science (Note). — Origin of Meteors. — Jupiter and the Sun. — Ori-

fin of Carbon. — Eight View of Corruption and Decay. — 'he Sun a Destroyer. — The Sun's Photosphere Connected with the Causes of Disease. — Magnetic Storms. — Connection Ifetween Magnetic Excitement and the Periodic Aggravation of Febrile Diseases. — Sunshine and Vegetation.— Artificial Light.— The Coal Beds.— Probable Failure of Coal Supply. — Can Science Invent a Substitute for Coal ?— Sunshine and Dew. — Sunshine and the Soil. — Sunshine and the Colours. — Sunshine and Dawn. — Sunshine and Twilight. — Weather Signs from Dawn and Sunset. — Sunshine and Chemistry. — Sunshine and Photography. — Sunshine and Magnetism. — Sunshine and the Animal Economy. — Sunshine and the Human Eyes. — How to Improve our Light by Day. — Sunshine and Childhood. — The Necessity of Light for Young Children. — Glass-house Nurseries needed. — Sunshine the Universal Source of Heat or Force . , 390

CHAPTER XXV.

WHAT BECOMES OF THE SHOWERS P

Exaggerated Notion of the Quantity of Water in Bain. — The Eains of the Tropics. — Kemarkable Eainfalls. — ^Universality of Water. — Subterranean Waters. — Necessity for Sam. — Effect of Rain on Vegetation. — ^Rain Promotes the Growth of Man. — How the Subterranean Reservoirs are Supplied. — The Rain on Mountains. — Drought in Hill Country. — Phenomena of Rain in Hot Countries, Spain, India. — Proportion of Rain evaporated or absorbed by the Soil. — The Filtration and Evaporation Gauge. — Nature of Land and Climate influencing the Results. — A Remarkable Artesian Well. — GenerS Conse- 2uence8. — Formulae for Estimating the Quantity of Water istributed by Rainfall. — General Utility of Rainfall Statistics. — Snow. — Snow Crystals. — ^Utility of Snow. — Purpose of Perpetual Snow in some Countries. — Snow in the Order of Providence.— The " Moral" Use of a Hard Winter. — The Harmony between all the Phenomena we have described. — The Universal Benefits of Water . . 413

SUNSHINE AND SHOWEKS.

CHAPTER I.

THE UNIVERSAL BELIEF IN THE POSSIBILITY OF PREDICTING THE WEATHER.

The persistence of public opinion in believing in the possibility of a foreknowledge of the weather, is a strange and characteristic phenomenon. Whilst a multitude of industrial and scientific ideas have had the privilege of occupying the minds of the masses only for a time, and then have disappeared, utterly forgotten, even by their warmest supporters, — whilst innumerable prejudices, strongly rooted in human nature, have been forced to give way to the repeated attacks of science, — the belief in the possibility of a foreknowledge of the weather has resisted everything. Prom the remotest ages, — ^from the epoch when man bowed down before the stars, and adored them as the creators and protectors of our world, — from the moment when, attributing to the heavenly bodies a determining influence on terrestrial events, he invented astrology, — the belief in the possibility of predicting the weather has existed, and survived even its numberless mistakes and failures, — in spite of the checks of those who have endeavoured to resolve this problem, in spite of the persistent resistance of modern science, which, ever since its formation, has always — down to the last few years — opposed the theory of forecasting the weather, by endeavouring to demonstrate its impossibility.

The persistence of public opinion in clinging to this belief was not only apparent in the Roman world of old, — that is, in the few regions in which all the ideas of ancient civilization circulated, and which, in their multifarious contact, must have received certain influences, certain leanings tending to keep all the world within the same circle of ideas and theories, — but we meet with it in every part of the universe, amongst savages and civilized nations. Everywhere, in the palaces of the rich, as in the huts of the poor ; in the farm-house of the husbandman, as in the wilds of the savage ; in the wigwam of the North American Indian, as in the dwellings of the Japanese and the Chinese, — everywhere man believes in the possibility of forecasting the weather; everywhere he receives, with marked favour, any attempt of the kind, totally regardless of the means employed.

There is, however, a great difference between such belief among civilized nations and that of savages in this respect. Whilst the former admit generally that man has no influence on the production of atmospheric phenomena, — whilst the advance of enlightenment constantly tends to suppress the belief in the supernatural pretensions of weather-wizards, and shows that man is exposed to the accidents of the elements, and cannot himself produce them, — the inhabitants of certain unci-

• WEATHER ALMANACS* 3

vilized countries believe in the influence of the human will on the manifestations of the forces of nature.

However, whether the belief is that the event comes to pass because it is predicted, or that it is predicted because it is to happen, the result is the same ; all the world believes in the possibility of predicting the weather. It is the one universal faith of all mankind. And, if general opinion be not a scientific proof, still it demonstrates in man the existence of an instinctive sentiment, which is favourable to this interesting question. Without the least investigation, man favourably receives all that tends to support this belief. He knows that sometimes the predicted event has very little probability in its favour; but without troubling himself with this circumstance, he accepts everything, — always ready to bury in oblivion the unfulfilled prediction, and to announce, with acclamation, that which comes to pass with more or less completeness.

Current facts testify to this averment. In all the weather-almanacs, predictions are ventured for almost every day in the year, and, of course, for every part of the United Kingdom ; and yet it is quite impossible that such predictions can be everywhere accomplished, excepting on rare occasions. It may be very fine weather in London, whilst " pouring in torrents '^ some twenty or thirty miles off, or even less. Nevertheless, these almanacs " sell well,^' and are highly prized by a large class of the community. A very small percentage of " hits '' suffices to secure the continuance of their popularity ; and if any of them should happen to make such a "hit " as Murphy made in his famous almanac for 1838, there can be no doubt that it would be attended with the same astounding result — a tremendous

B 2

4 SUNSHIN£ AND SHOWERS.

rush upon the publishers, with utter inability to supply the demand, and some £7000 cleared, as by Murphy on that occasion, by having — as chance would have it — marked the 20th of January as ''Fair, Probable lowest degree of winter temperature y^^ which occurred to the very letter — the thermometer below zero for some hours, and a rapid change of nearly fifty-six degrees, — two things almost unprecedented in the annals of meteorological observation in this country !

Thus, a chance success intensifies the belief, and no amourtt of failure produces incredulity. So that, if it be true that the sentiment which we all have in us respecting the perpetuity of after-life, and the horror inspired to all of us by the bare idea of annihilation, may be taken as the best proof of the soiiPs immortality, — the perpetuity and the universality of the belief in the possibility of predicting the weather may be taken as a proof of that possibility.

To doubt that a science of weather is possible would be to doubt that atmospheric disturbances are governed by fixed laws. But, indeed, a wonderful change has taken place in this matter of late years. Formerly, most savants scoffed at the idea of predicting the weather, and Arago, the French astronomer, said that no scientific man, anxious for his reputation, would venture upon such a thing, even for the space of a single day ; but now it is just the reverse ; those most acquainted with meteorology are the staunchest believers in the ultimate probability of "doing the thing ^^ to the world's great satisfaction. Indeed, had one-half of the time and research devoted to sidereal astronomy been spent in observing and registering changes, which any one may notice, but no one has yet succeeded in pre-

INTUITIVE WEATHER PROGNOSTICS. 5

dieting or interpreting, meteorology would not be still '* in its infancy " after a birth thousands of years ago — nay, coeval with the first appearance of man upon earth, to observe the '^ signs which are in the firmament of the heavens."

We have said that the failures of weather predictions have had na influence on the minds of the masses ; but we must add that, hand-in-hand with these failures, there are positive facts which favour and justify the popular belief in this attribute of man. We all know the certainty with which sailors and most country people foresee changes in the weather twenty-four hours before they occur, and that, too, without being able to give very precise reasons for their prophecy. It is by a sort of intuition that they seize, as it were, the precursors of the coming phenomena, and, for the most part, they merely obey an instinct which compels them to prognosticate the impending shock of the gaseous ocean which surrounds us.

Moreover, the certainty with which the lower animals foresee the changes of the weather, the impressions which they receive long before man himself is influenced, that solemn expectancy of all nature, which manifests itself before every shock of the elements, — all tend to show us that the forecasting of the weather is not a mere chimera ; and that if we are often agitated, as it were, in a circle without an outlet, if we strive in vain to pierce the veil of the future ; this happens, for the most part, because, in our social life, there are all sorts of concerns that prevent us from hearing the voice of nature, and which render us deaf and blind in the presence of the most evident signs of coming weather.

Thus^ then^ if the lower animals get an idea of

O SUNSHINE AND SHOWEBS^

coming weather from their sensations, man must^ for the most part^ rely on those instruments which his intellect has devised^ and which are^ so to speak^ substitutes for the instinct of the former. No single weather-instrument is absolutely sufScient in itself^ even fcfr ordinary indications, unless it be the Hygrometer; but all-sufBcient as this admirable instrument is in its capability of indicating the continuance of sunshine or coming showers, still it is by the help of the laws established by the barometer that we are enabled to interpret its all but infallible indications. Armed with the hygrometer, no farmer will ever be surprised by showers, and it will enable him to count upon the continuance of sunshine on almost every occasion of such indications. We say almost, for there are occasions, rare, it must be admitted, when the hygrometer fails to announce the coming change ; but this unavoidable defect may be easily supplied by what should always be its companion instrument — the Evaporation -Gauge, as will appear in the sequel.

These two instruments, as we shall endeavour to demonstrate, will enable everybody to be weather-wise, at a very trifling expense, and with very little trouble.

For our own part, we may state that since we have set up these instruments, and studied them, we have never been ^^ caught in a shower " without an umbrella ; nor have we had to be inconvenienced by carrying an umbrella without having to use it. This is rather important. For a good umbrella costs more than a good hygrometer, such as we have been using ; and it is quite certain that umbrellas are more injured by carrying than by use as a shelter from showers.

Of course^ to the farmer, at haymaking-time and

IMPORTANCE OF THE HYGROMETER. 7

during h^rvest^ ilie use of such a monitor will be invalu^ able if he can be enabled to interpret accurately its indications^ as we hope to enable him to do^ by furnishing him with the rules of the instrument^ suggested by its nature^ and verified by us during a considerable expejience of such appearances of the skies as were calculated to mislead^ not only ordinary weather-wise people, but even the scientific " readers '^ of the barometer.

In the Report of the Committee of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, the weather forecasts of the late Admiral EitzRoy are very severely handled, on account of their preponderant failings ; and the Committee venture to decide that our present knowledge is not sufficient to enable us to predict weather ; that, in fact, there is no scientific basis on which to rest daily forecasts. We totally dissent from this opinion, and have reason to believe that sufficient data exist to enable us to forecast weather, with reasonable accuracy, not only for a month beforehand, but for a season ; and that, from day to day, the hygrometer may be maae an infallible means of warning the farmer, the sailor, and all who may care about coming weather. If the late Admiral FitzRoy and his successors had been furnished with the hygrometric data of each station, instead of the vague initials in the column headed " weather,^^ in their daily table, and had studied the indications of the instrument, they would have seldom been wrong in their *' probabilities,^' and would have been spared the unscrupulous and, to a great extent, unmerited lashes of this precious committee, who, however, may be excused on the ground that they recommend the Government to vote a much larger sum than hitherto allowed for meteorological purposes, and make some valuable suggesions for the advancement of meteorology in all its bearings.

Such is our confidence in the hygrometer, after ample experience ; and we promise to make good every assertion in its favour.

The simple rules which we have drawn up for guid- ' ance will be found sufficient in themselves ; but it may be advisable, in the first instance, to consider summarily the physical facts and laws upon which the hygrometer depends for its indications of coming weather.

Chapter II. The Arrangement Of The Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a gaseous mass which surrounds the earth on all sides like an ocean, in which all plants and animals live and have their heing, like fishes in the sea, which is their element, just as the air is ours. All the phenomena with which meteorology is concerned take place in the atmosphere, among which are sunshine and showers, and many others, at which we must glance in order to give completeness to our labour.

The air is said to be invisible, but this is true only respecting the limited portions immediately around us; aloft, in large masses, it assumes the blue colour which is called cerulean, resulting, however, from the watery vapour in it, and not from its essential properties. It is also said to be scentless ; but no doubt, like everything else in the material world, it has some sort of scent of its own, to which, by habit, we get too much accustomed to distinguish it, and so we become sensible of its presence only by the foreign scents, good, bad, and indifferent, with which it gets readily impregnated.

As various atmospheric agents play a part in the phenomena of sunshine and showers, we must enumerate them succinctly, call to mind their chief properties, and point out the different action which they exert on one another.

The atmosphere especially destined to support the existence of the living beings on our globe consists chiefly of air, properly so called, hence usually termed atmospheric air, with which are mixed a small quantity of carbonic acid and a variable portion of watery vapour. The carbonic acid supports vegetation, — makes wood, and therefore, so to speak, made coal, which was once wood, growing in mighty forests on the surface of this beautiful world "in the far backward and abysm of time.'^ But sunshine is necessary to enable plants and trees to make wood out of the carbon of carbonic acid ; and so, after all, it was the sun, " the Arch-Chymic Sun,^^ as Dante calls it, that made the coal, which does so much herculean work for us. " What moves this carriage?'* asked George Stephenson, in company with an eminent savant in the train on one occasion. " Why, the engine, of course," was the reply. "But what moves the engine ?'' — "Steam — coal/' — "No, no!'' exclaimed the truly philosophic British workman, "it's neither steam nor coal, but the sun, that made the coal, and is now working through it for ever and ever."