The study of a novel

Preface

This volume is the result of practical experience in teaching the novel, and its aim is primarily pedagogical. It is only within the last few decades that the novel has been given much separate attention in college courses, and it cannot be hoped that any detailed method of study, at so early a date, can be more than an experiment and a temporary contribution. But it has been nearly a half-century since Senior conceived a " treatise on Fiction, illustrated by examples," and some ten years since Professor Newcomer wrote (in a Practical Course in English Composition) that fiction would " require a special treatise even for its technical side." Such fulfilment as has been made of these prophecies has been mainly in the field of the short story. The present writer has ventured into the field of the novel, with a sense that the time had come for tillage, even though the crop might be partly of weeds.

The references in the text and in the bibliography will indicate indebtedness to many works. Crawshaw, Hennequin, Moulton, and Riemann, in particular, have had a large influence on the general method or the specific analyses of this volume. Professor Perry's valuable study appeared after the plan for this study was matured, and has been read for literary enjoyment rather than for critical contribution.

vi PREFACE

For personal encouragement and assistance, the writer is grateful to more friends than can be named here. The completion of the work is due, in no small measure, to the sympathetic attitude of colleagues and pupils at Iowa College; and especially to the cooperative spirit of Professor Charles Noble, Dr. John S. Nollen, Dr. Martha Foote Crow, and Mr. DeWitt C. Sprague. Dr. Nollen has given much practical assistance in matters relating to French and German data. His generous service, in many ways, from the conception of the work until the final proof-reading, is acknowledged with pleasure.

Lawrence, Kansas, September 30, 1905.

Introduction

To the Teacher

It has required a long time for prose fiction to attain a dignified and independent position in the world of criticism. This has been due in part, no doubt, to the frailties of fiction, in part to the ungenerous conservatism of the critics. It is no longer deemed necessary to apologize for fiction itself, but a detailed study of its form is still quite generally proposed in an apologetic tone. It is frequently said that the novel is written to be read and enjoyed, not to be dissected. It might be replied that "dissection " is, in some cases, to some minds, a source of great enjoyment; that there is no necessary antagonism between agreeable reading and analytical study, and that if only the primary human values of things were examined, several of the sciences would disappear. Flowers are pleasant to see and smell, and may be associated in one's memory with the bridal day or the new-made grave ; yet the microscopic study of botany is not usually opposed on sentimental grounds. The same person may at one time enter the cathedral for personal worship, at another, for professional examination of its structure, without any sense of conflict between the two interests. There may be persons who are unable to combine the aesthetic enjoyment of literature with systematic study of its nature, but it may be doubted whether they are the best examples of genuine and normal love of literature. Does not a somewhat systematic approach to fiction seem worth while so long as conflicting opinions like the followviii INTRODUCTION

ing are not only possible but representative, in the columns of reputable journals? — "This novel has that charm of blended romance and realism, that captivating verisimilitude, and that nameless power to haunt one with its shametinged sorrow and happiness which testify unmistakably of genius.' ' — " The rankest rot, ethically and artistically, ever published.'*

Teachers of literature are accustomed to the complaint that their subject is vague. The recent tendency towards detailed analysis of literature is, from one point of view, an effort to discover how far this vagueness is due to methods of study, rather than to the nature of the subject. A little examination of the novel shows that it has, in spite of its amorphous quality, certain fixed values of material and of form, which may repay a systematic examination, and are independent of the personal impressions of the reader. The separate consideration of characters, plot, and settings, and the distinction between characters and characterization, are now fairly well established. Cooperative effort might result in greater uniformity of view, without violence to the nature of the novel, or danger to the liberty of the individual teacher. In this volume the aim has been to " keep the eye upon the object." In the matter of sequence and proportion in analysis, there is room for a wide difference of opinion, and exact uniformity is not to be desired. The order of examination in these pages has been carefully considered, but it may prove satisfactory to few, and may be variously altered without destroying the general plan. Examples of other methods of analysis for the novel — independent, yet not without some tendency towards agreement — will be found on pages 265-268.

If there is a science of the novel, this work does not attempt to embody it. It is interesting, however, to com-

INTRODUCTION ix

pare the problems of systematic literary study with similar problems in other fields. In Walker's Political Economy (Briefer Course, page 18), several sections are devoted to "the obstacles which Political Economy encounters." Some of these obstacles, such as the fact that most persons " feel themselves competent, irrespective of study ... to form opinions " on all phases of the subject, and the difficulty of finding a clear, precise terminology, are very familiar to the teacher of literature.

The question of the right relations of extensive and intensive study is often harassing. A fairly complete analysis of some single novel seems desirable ; but there is no work which represents adequately all the values of the type, and such a study, pursued in a spirit of real interest in details, would require almost an entire course. On the other hand, some of the richest cultural values of the novel are to be gained only by a liberal reading which brings before one a wide area of historical and social interests. The best general method is perhaps a combination of the two kinds of study in a single course. In an historical course, there are some novels which ought to be examined without complete reading, others which may be read entire, but scarcely repay detailed study. The present volume is intended mainly as a guide to the consecutive and extended study of the individual novel, though the analysis could be distributed among several works, in accordance with their specific values. The experience of the writer has been that it is best, for mature students, to attain as great a general familiarity with a work as possible before a systematic study is attempted. This practise may help to dispel the conception that one who has simply read a work of literature has " had it."

The study of the novel offers an opportunity for a

X INTRODUCTION

review of the formal rhetorical study of exposition, narration, and description. It may give the mind elasticity and a sense of freedom in considering the relations of these rhetorical types, which are liable to become somewhat artificially viewed in prolonged separate study. Any previous study of the short story ought to be advantageous in the examination of the closely allied, but more complicated, form of the novel. The short story has this advantage, that critical study and practical composition can go hand in hand; but many detached exercises in novelistic composition might be profitable, at least for advanced students. The intimate relations of the novel to the drama and the epic are obvious, and suggest a frequent reference to masterpieces already familiar, or to new material.

In spite of considerable criticism, and even ridicule, the study of comparative literature seems to be making progress in America and in Europe, as a well-defined spirit, aim, and method. In an ideal arrangement, a course in the history of the novel would probably be undertaken from this point of view. It is impossible to gain a satisfactory view of the development of any national fiction without constant reference to the general European development of fiction. No adequate work in the latter subject exists in English, but the revised editions of Dunlop, with the assistance of various monographs, will furnish a valuable background. In the matter of translations, while acquaintance with the originals is always desirable, there is probably less loss through a translation for the novel than for any other type of literature — especially for lyric poetry. If a spirit of cooperation exists among the modern language teachers of a school, combined effort can offer some instruction in comparative literature, without offense to the dignity of scholarship.

INTRODUCTION xi

One reason why the study of the novel has made slow progress, until recent years, is that it could not follow the traditional methods of criticism for the classics. Some classical teachers seem scornful of the study of modern literature, at least in the mother-tongue of the student. These conditions are not entirely discouraging. They may prove a stimulus in the development of a study of literature for its own sake, and in relation to social, ethical, and psychological interests rather than to philology, in its narrower meaning. When the novel is considered as the modern epic, moreover, even Homer and Vergil have a legitimate place in the wide comparative view of fiction ; and Coleridge suggests a tempting study when he writes, "Upon my word, I think the GEdipus Tyrannus, The Alchemist, and Tom Jones the three most perfect plots ever planned" (Table-talk, July 5, 1834).

An intensive study of any art ought to increase interest in other arts, and to prove a good introduction, episode, or epilogue in a course of general aesthetics. The novel is often considered the most characteristic art-form of the nineteenth century. It offers one an inviting field for the concrete study of many important principles and problems of aesthetics, some of which have been brought into recent prominence because of its large vogue. Like music, fiction has the advantage of offering its masterpieces to communities remote from the great art centers.

The willing, if feminine, assistance the novel may give to ethics, history, psychology, and sociology ought not to be despised. Such studies as are outlined in Chapters X and XI directly concern the last two subjects, which are also touched at many points in the analysis of the form and matter of the novel itself. The psychology of characterization, if it does not yield real scientific data, furnishes xii INTRODUCTION

an interesting literary comment on the science of the mind. The writer has known an instructor to analyze some of Poe's tales in a course in logic. For such a purpose a technical examination of the methods of motivation would not have come amiss.

President King, of Oberlin College, makes contact with the complexity of life one of the three or four essentials of a real educational process. If this judgment is accepted, the large educational value of the novel can scarcely be denied. Complex in its origin, development, form, subject, and appeal, it introduces the mind to a world which has to some degree the aspect of a chaos rather than a cosmos, and yet is not without its laws. Fiction, in its ethics and its aesthetics, its exhibition of the individual, of society, and of religion, challenges the student to review his opinions; to distinguish truth from error, the significant from the insignificant; to search for the fundamental values of art and the essential meaning of experience. A study of the novel brings one face to face with strong and often restless minds, and invites one, by a slow and patient effort, to learn to know himself.

Never perfect as a form of art, never presenting a perfect individual or a perfect society, fiction represents the limitations, but also the living qualities, of romantic art, as conceived in a broad contrast to the classical ideal, by Browning : —

To-day's brief passion limits their range ;

It seethes with the morrow for us and more.

They are perfect — how else ? they shall never change :

We are faulty — why not ? we have time in store.

Contents

PAGE

Preface v

Introduction

Chapter I External Structure Section

1. Meaning of External Structure I

2. Significance of External Structure 2

3. Characteristics of Novelist ic Structure 2

4. The Whole Composition 3

5. The Title 5

6. Length of Composition 6

7. Principal Divisions of a Novel 7

8. Volume, Part, and Book 8

9. The Chapter 9

10. The Paragraph 10

11. Minor Divisions 12

12. Prose and Verse 13

13. Dramatic and Non-dramatic Form 15

14. Non-dramatic Form 16

15. Dialogic Form in General 17

16. Soliloquy and Monologue 17

17. Duologue 18

18. Group Conversation (Conversation) 18

19. Concerted Speech 19

20. Documentary Form in General 20

21. Epistolary Form 20

22. Syntax 22

23. Vocabulary 25

24. Phonology 27

xiii

XIV CONTENTS

Chapter II Consecutive Structure

25. Significance of Consecutive Structure 28

26. Sequence 29

27. The Principal Masses 30

28. Sequence of Dramatic and Non-dramatic Masses . . . . 3JL

29. Beginning, Middle, and End 32

30. Movement and Situation 33

31. Event and Incident 34

32. The Scene 36

33. Episode 37

34. Lines of Interest . 38

35. The Line of Emotion 39

36. Points 40

37. Mass in Momentum 42

38. The Rate of Movement 43

39. Climax and Foiling 44

40. Reciprocity 45

41. Analysis of Simpler Narratives ....... 46

Chapter III Plot

42. Meaning of Plot 47

43. Necessity and Ideality of Narrative Plot 48

44. Action and Narration 49

45- Story 51

46. Story and Plot 51

47. The Plot Proper 52

48. The Single Action 53

49. Sequence of Simple Narratives 56

50. The Dramatic Line 57

51. The Climax 59

52. The Catastrophe 60

53. Motivation 62

54. Motivating Forces 63

55. The Narrator. — His Point of View 66

56. Temporal Point of View 67

57. Spatial Point of View 69

CONTENTS xv

58. Character Point of View 71

59. Generalized Statement of Plot 72

60. Unity of Plot 73

The Judgment of Plot 76

CHAPTER IV 63. ^Esthetic Function of Settings 78

General Time Setting 78

Detailed Time Settings 79

General Place Setting 81

Detailed Place Settings 82

Circumstantial Settings 8^

Reality, Ideality, and Truth ........ 84

Vague and Exact Settings 85

Natural, Social, and Socialized Settings 86

Author and Dramatis Personam 87

Distribution 88

Further Economy 89

CHAPTER V Composition 91

Number 92

Chapter Distribution 93

Grouping in General 93

Successive Groups . . . . . . . . . .94

Foreground, Middleground, and Background Characters . . 96

Central Characters : . . . -97

Association of Characters 99

Relation to the Author 1 01

Reality and Ideality 102

Individuals and Types 104

Social Groups 105

Psychological Groups 107 xvi CONTENTS

Chapter VI Characterization

88. Character and Characterization 109

89. Novelistic Characterization no

90. Character Unfolding . .111

91. Appellation . . . . .112

92. Physiognomy 113

93. Costume and Physical Environment 114.

95. Utterance 117

96. Physiological Psychology 118

97. Pure Psychology 120

98. Identity, Individuality, and Type . » 121

99. Character Change 124

100. Direct and Indirect Characterization .125

101. General Methods 127

102. Group Characterization .128

Chapter VII

103. Subject-Matter and Form . . 130

104. Extensive and Intensive Subject 131

105. The Typical and the Individual 131

106. Exhibition and Interpretation 131

107. The Subject of the Novel 132

108. Sociology and History 132

109. Social Composition 133

no. Social Life 135

111. Historical Period 138

112. Historical Interpretation 139

113. Individuality. • 140

114. The Individual and Society 142

115. Human Nature 143

116. Nature in Man ... 144

117. External Nature 144

118. The Supernatural 145

119. General Philosophy 147

120. The Main Theme 148

CONTENTS xvii

CHAPTER VIII STYLE General Conception 150

Objective and Subjective Aspects . . • ... • 151

Qualities of Style , 151

Types of Style 152

Value of Style in the Novel 152

The Novelistic Type 154

Novelistic Qualities 154

Comprehensiveness 155

Objectivity 156

Concreteness . . . . 158

Complexity 160

Secularity 161

Humor 162

Ideality 163

Force 164

Other Qualities 165

CHAPTER IX Value of the Study 166

The Data for Study 166

The Germ of the Work 167

The Plan 169

The Sources 170

The Time Perspective 173

Technic of the Process 174

Psychology of the Process 176

Collaboration 180

Fragments 180

Chapter X The Shaping Forces

147. General Conception 181

148. The Data 182

149. Individuality of the Author 183 xviii CONTENTS

150. The Author's Age 184

152. Personal Episode 186

153. National and Racial Influences . 0 187

154. Linguistic Influence 191

155. Literary Influence . . . 193

156. Historical Influence 195

157. Immediate Social Environment 197

158. Human Nature 198

159. The Influence of Nature . . ... . . . 199

Chapter XI The Influence Of A Novel

160. Popularity of Fiction . . . . . . . . . 202

161. The Data 203

162. Time Distribution 203

163. Place Distribution 204

164. Influence upon Literature 205

165. Social Groups in General . . 207

166. Influence upon Individuals 208

167. Kind and Degree of Influence 209

168. Perceptual Effect 209

169. Sensational Effect 211

170. Emotional Effect 212

171. Conceptual Effect 213

172. Volitional Effect 214

173. The Influencing Elements . 214

174. The Causes of Influence 216

Chapter XII Comparative Rhetoric

175. Nature of the Study 218

176. The Forms of Discourse 218

177. Prose and Poetry 219

1 78. Prose and Verse 220

179. The Short Story 221

180. The Epic 222

181. Biography 224

CONTENTS xix

182. History 225

183. The Essay 226

184. The Lyric 227

185. Journalism . 229

186. Other Types of Literature 230

Chapter XIII Comparative Aesthetics

Relation of the Separate Arts 232

Classification of the Arts 233

Method of Study 233

The Drama 234

Painting 237

Sculpture 239

Music 241

Architecture 243

Landscape Gardening 245

CHAPTER XIV .Esthetic Analysis and .Esthetic Theory 247

Nature and Humanity in a Work of Art 247

Language as External Material 248

The Value of Form ......... 249

Individuality of a Work of Art 249

201. Unity — General Design 250

202. Contrast 252

Proportion 253

The Comic and the Tragic 254

The Beautiful and the Unbeautiful . . . . . .256

Artistic Truth 257

Artistic Illusion 258

Theories of Art 260

Theories of the Novel 262

Judgment of a Novel 263

XX CONTENTS

PAGE

I. Systematic Analysis of a Novel 265

II. Glossary and Topical References 269

III. Types of Prose Fiction 279

IV. Notes on the History of Novelistic Criticism . . • 286 V. Bibliography and References 309

Index . 319

Chapter I External Structure

i. Meaning of External Structure. — Like all other artists, the novelist communicates with us solely through a sensuous medium — an external material. For the novelist this medium is language, considered as already prepared for him by nature and society, and significant in the study of an individual work only as an individual novelist has given it a particular structure. This medium itself, differing in no very important respects for all the forms of literature, is considered in the chapter on General ^Esthetic Interest.

The form given to language in a novel, as observed by eye and ear, whether referring to small details or to the whole composition, may be called, for the sake of clearness, the " external structure." Primarily, and especially from the aesthetic point of view, the appeal of this structure is to the ear. The complete evaluation of the structural interest of a novel can be given only when it is read aloud. Practically, in most cases, the values of the structure as an arrangement of sounds, reach us through the medium of the eye, and this visible structure comes to have a certain, though relatively slight, aesthetic value in itself. A sonnet is more readily appreciated when it is printed compactly on a single page.

2. Significance of External Structure. — The larger units of external structure in a novel have comparatively little aesthetic significance in themselves, as compared with those of the spatial arts. There is no very obvious artistic difference between a novel divided into " parts " and one divided into chapters only ; but these divisions are important when we interpret them in their relation to the " internal structure.' ' The smaller structural forms, those which the ear distinctly grasps as units — the phrase, sentence, paragraph — may have a definite aesthetic value in themselves. Elaborate attention to the sound-values of every detail of structure is more characteristic of verse than of prose, and some critics would probably consider it antagonistic to the nature of the novel as a prose form. On the whole, the tendency to develop these values persistently is more characteristic of the short story than of longer fictions, and more characteristic of the romance than of the novel.

3. Characteristics of Novelistic Structure. — All the

structural forms of the novel are found in other kinds of literature. The novel differs from its literary fellows only by a characteristic combination of structural units, and in some cases, by a special adaptation of them. No form of prose literature, in English at least, has a perfectly definite structure determining the type of the whole composition. In comparison with the sonnet, rondeau, ballade, etc., the novel, the essay, the oration, are all " amorphous." The history of the novel shows no very important development in this respect, though somewhat more careful attention to the treatment of structural units is naturally found in the more modern novelists.

The novel, in a generic sense including the romance, as written to-day, is fairly determinate in the following respects : —

1. It is written almost entirely in prose.

2. It contains from fifty thousand to five hundred thou-

sand words.

3. It is divided into paragraphs, and the paragraphs

grouped into one, or usually more than one, kind - of higher division.

4. It has a distinct, separate title or titles, sufficient to

distinguish it from all other individual works. (Compare some lyrics, called simply " Lines,' ' "A Song," etc. ; histories identified by the author's name, etc.)

5. It is composed of a significant combination, in alter-

nation, of dramatic form (quoted speech) and of non-dramatic (unquoted speech). If the entire novel is supposed to be quoted speech, as in the epistolary and other documentary types, there is a secondary dramatic form within this. Specially characteristic of the novel, as distinct from the drama, is the " described dialogue," as contrasted with the " set " or pure dramatic dialogue.

4. The Whole Composition. — The mere determination of the composition is not quite so simple a matter as it might seem. Ordinarily a single novel is taken as a unit for careful study.

This frequently includes more than the " story " proper — the continuous illusion of the plot. It may be introduced by a " dramatic " preface, with an illusion of its own, as in Scott's Old Mortality, Bride of Lammermoor, etc. In the latter work, Chapter I is supposed to be written by Peter Pattieson, is quite separate from the story proper, and contains an interesting and fairly complete little story in itself. A novel may end as well as begin with this dramatic addition to the story proper; as does, for example, The Heart of Midlothian.

The " single novel" may be a member of a group, which must be examined if one is fully to comprehend the isolated member. A familiar example of the grouping of a number of single compositions into a larger whole is found in the so-called "frame." This form has been most frequently used in the short story, notably in the famous examples of the Decameron, Heptameron, Canterbury Tales, etc., but it is occasionally found in the novel.

Scott partially carries out the " frame " idea in his Tales of My Landlord. The " frame," in this case, includes several minor characters, as well as the principal ones — Jedediah Cleishbotham and Peter Pattieson — and a number of interesting incidents and settings. An example of a long fiction belonging to a larger non-fictive whole is Paul and Virginia, composed as one of Saint-Pierre's u Studies of Nature." This famous idyl can, to say the least, be better understood if one has some acquaintance with the " whole composition," of which it is in a sense a part. One of the most interesting examples of a fictive composition including an expanded part essentially non-fictive is Robinson Crusoe. To most readers, Robinson Crusoe means what Defoe finally considered only the first of three parts of that work.

In some cases, to give variety and scope to the study, one may take as the unit of analysis, not a single novel, but a group of related novels. These are properly one composition only when they were so intended by the author himself ; but this is not a rare case in the history of the novel. The degree of unity in such series, in characters, plot, settings, etc., is very various. In regular "duodrama," trilogy, or tetralogy, a very high degree of unity may be found, worthy of close examination.

One form with less definitely planned unity is that of the simple continuation, frequently suggested by another than the novelist, after the publication of the first part, as in Pamela, Don Quixote, etc. Sometimes such continuation has been forced upon the author by a spurious one. Continuation by another than the original author offers interesting material for study of the process of composition.

Larger groups may be called series, or cycles. Their organization is sometimes quite complex, as in what is probably the supreme example, the Comedie Humaine of Balzac. For special purposes still looser groups may be studied together : as a novel and its imitations, for example, Robinson Crusoe and the " Robinsonades " of German fiction ; or a work and burlesques upon it, as Pamela and Joseph Andrews, the romances of chivalry and Don Quixote, Gothic romances and Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey.

Examples of Novelistic Groups. — Dualogy: Valdes — Riverita, Maximina; Goethe — Wilhelm Meister's Lehrjahre and Wanderjahre. Trilogy: Scott — Waverley, Guy Mannering, Antiquary (see advertisement to last, 1829); Zola — Lourdes, Rome, Paris; Sienkiewicz — With Fire and Sword, The Deluge, Pan Michael ; d'Annunzio — Romances of the Lily; in some sense the novels of Richardson. Series: Freytag — DieAhnen; Zola — The Rougon-Macquart novels ; Trollope — Chronicles of Barsetshire. Cycle : Balzac — Comedie Humaine ; Waverley Novels. (For grouping in Scott's mind, see his own introductions.)

Even when the composition is a single novel, it may contain an intercalated story that is aesthetically quite independent (Don Quixote, Gil Bias, Tom Jones, Tale of Two Cities, etc.). A unique example of intercalation is the complete drama in Ziegler's Asiatische Banise.

5. The Title. — In the introduction of 1829 to Rob Roy, Scott, speaking of the title, says, "A good name [is] very nearly of as much consequence in literature as in life." (Compare Chapter I of Waverley.) In the introduction of 1830 to Ivanhoe, he states the theory that a title should conceal the nature of the composition; yet probably the most natural function of a title is to express in some manner the main theme of the novel. It may refer more particularly to characters, settings, or action ; it may be realistic, romantic, impressionistic, etc. A title often has some special significance not apparent on the surface. Note, for example, Joseph Andrews, Sense and Sensibility, Nouvelle Heloi'se, Turgenieff's On the Eve, Comedie Humaine.

The titles of English sentimental fiction toward the close of the eighteenth century include : Sentimental Tales, The Tears of Sensibility, The Man of Feeling, The Effusions of the Heart, and many others of like nature. Characteristic of nineteenth century realism are such titles as A Modern Instance (Howells), A Common Story (Gontcharoff ), One of Life's Slaves (Lie), Life's Little Ironies (Thomas Hardy).

In form, a title may be single or double ; thematic or analytical ; purely individual, or including a type word or phrase. Of such type words story, novel, romance, adventures, history, life, etc., are common examples.

Adventures is a common type word in the novel of action, occurring in Smollett frequently, in Robinson Crusoe, Joseph Andrews, Oliver Twist, Kidnapped, etc. History has been common since Painter wrote (preface to The Palace of Pleasure, 1565) of "histories, which, by another term, I call novels.1' It was specially frequent in the latter part of the eighteenth century ; " secret history " being a somewhat characteristic variation.

An old-fashioned artificial device is the repetition of the title at the end of the novel, used some half-dozen times by Scott, and in Soil und Haben. Titles of the subdivisions of structure are often important.

6. Length of Composition. — Recent criticism has emphasized the idea that the difference between the modern short story and the novel is not primarily one of length. Still it is true that marked variation in length implies aesthetic difference in the fictions themselves, the process of composition, and the effect on the reader. Silas Marner and War and Peace may both be called novels; but the fact that the former contains about seventy-five thousand words and the latter about seven hundred thousand concerns every important aspect of the two works. The mere labor of writing and reading the heroic romances — those fictions a longite haleine — is indicative of significant social conditions during the period of their popularity. Richardson was fully conscious of the great length of his novels, and offers apology or explanations therefor.

The length of a novel may be given in pages, but the approximate length in words is more convenient for purposes of comparison, especially with compositions in verse. A classification for practical purposes may follow some such outline as this : —