Studies in Japanese Buddhism

Front matter

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Prefatory Note

The present volume contains the seventh course of lectures offered by New York University upon the foundation known as the Charles F. Deems Lectureship of Philosophy. The University contracted April 15, 1895, with the American Institute of Christian Philosophy, a corporation chartered December 1, 1891, that the University would maintain said lectureship for at least twenty years by securing biennially a Lecturer, eminent in Science and Philosophy, who should treat in not less than six lectures some one of the most important questions of Science and Philosophy, with a special reference to its relation to the revealed truths of the Holy Scriptures and to the fundamental principles of Theistic Philosophy.

The Lecturer was to be chosen by the University's Committee upon the Charles F. Deems Lectureship, which was to consist of the Chancellor of the University, two members of the Faculty of Arts and Science and two members of the University Council, to be named as the Council may direct. The subject for each year's lectures was to be agreed upon between this Committee and the Lecturer.

The University provided, free of charge, a room for the lectures, and at its own expense, made due public announcement of the time and place of each lecture. The U^niversity was to publish, in book form, each series of lectures, and put the same on sale with one or more reputable book firms, provided this could be done without further expense than could be met by the accumulation of income over and above the expense of maintaining the lectures.

vii viii PREFATORY NOTE

The several volumes of lectures upon the Deems Foundation have been published as follows :

1. "Theism in the Light of Present Science and Philosophy," by James Iverach, M.A., D.D. : The Macmillan Company, New York and London.

2. "Theism," by Borden P. Bowne, D.D., Professor of Philosophy in Boston University : American Book Company, New York, Cincinnati and Chicago.

3. "Religions of Eastern Asia," by Horace Grant Underwood, D.D. : The Macmillan Company, New York.

4. "The Teaching of Paul in Terms of the Present Day," by Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, D.C.L. : Hodder & Stoughton, London New York and Toronto.

5. "Ethics and Modern Thought — A Theory of Their Relations," by Rudolf Eucken, Professor of Philosophy, University of Jena : G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London.

6. The failure of the health of the late Principal Fairbairn of Oxford, England, after the delivery of his lectures, prevented the preparation of them for the press.

7. The present volume published by The IMacmillan Company, the seventh and concluding volume of the first series of lectures, is from the pen of the youngest of the seven lecturers upon this Foundation.

Dr. August Karl Reischauer was born in Jonesboro, Illinois, September fourth, 1879, and was therefore in his thirty-fourth year when he lectured upon the Deems Foundation, being the first of the lecturers who was under forty years of age. He studied at Hanover College, Indiana, and the McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago ; and after his ordination in 1905, went at once to Japan to teach Ethics and Philosophy in the mission college in the south part of the city of Tokyo, the school being called Meiji Gakuin, in honor of the Meiji era of the history of Japan, which was ushered in in the year of 1868 by the abolition of the government of the Shoguns and the replacing in supreme power of the Mikado, who had for centuries been kept in subjection to the military Shogunate. He has published in

PREFATORY NOTE ix

Japan a catechism on Buddhism of the Shin Sect, Buddhist Gold Nuggets, and a treatise on personal immortality. Dr. Reischauer's lectures on the Deems Foundation have not appeared earlier because he did not return to Japan for some months after their delivery and required considerable time for preparing them for the press. No libraries outside of Japan contain more than a mere fraction of the Buddhist authorities from whose writings the material of these lectures was obtained.

The lecturer in his first lecture presented Buddhist Origins. In the second he traced the development of Primitive Buddhism into the Mahayana Buddhism, this form of Buddhism having the lead in Japan. He presented in his third lecture the historical development of Japanese Buddhism. His fourth lecture discussed the Buddhist Canon. In his fifth he sketched the Japanese Sects and their chief tenets and in the sixth Buddhist Ethics. The closing lecture presented, in comparison with Buddhism, the strength of Christianity in Japan.

The twenty years' contract between the American Institute of Christian Philosophy and New York University having expired by limitation, these two parties are now considering the question of renewing the same. It falls to me as both a member of the University Committee and President of the Institute of Philosophy to supply this prefatory statement.

HENRY MITCHELL MacCRACKEN.

University Heights, New York City.

Author's Preface

In sending this book forth to the public I am keenly aware of the fact that the magnitude of the subject with which it deals is such that it may seem absurd to try to cover it in such a short space. Any one chapter might easily be expanded into a large volume without even then going into very great details. And yet I feel that a general, brief survey of the subject, such as this book tries to give, is on the whole the wisest plan when one considers the present degree of interest in Oriental religions and philosophies on the part of Western readers. There is still so very little in English books on Japanese Buddhism of even a general character that no author can hope to get much of a hearing who does not confine himself largely to merely the outstanding facts and characteristics of his theme. Then further should it be said that even the interested student who enters this field must ever be on his guard lest in the multiplicity of the details — and in Japanese Buddhism there is a wealth of this — he lose sight of the main trend of the subject.

As stated in the preface by Dr. H. M. MacCracken, this volume comprises the Deems Lectures for the year 1913, but it should be said that the lectures as originally given have been almost entirely rewritten and considerably expanded. The form of the lectures has, however, determined in general the main trend of thought in the book

Naturally I feel myself indebted to a great many writers and to other friends with whom I have talked on this great subject during my eleven years of residence in Tokyo. This, as far as books written in European languages are concerned, has been partly acknowledged, but I wish to make special mention here of the late Professor Arthur Lloyd, whose pioneer work was of great value to me at the beginning of my studies

xi xii AUTHOR'S PREFACE

when Japanese authors were still "closed books." My debt to these Japanese writers is such that I shall not even attempt to acknowledge it properly. In closing I only wish to mention the names of Professors G. Kato and M. Nagai of the Tokyo Imperial University and Professor S. Tajima of INIeiji Gakuin for their kind assistance in preparing the bibliography of Japanese books, which it is hoped may prove of help to the student who desires to pursue further his studies in this immense, and to the Western scholar practically unknown,

field.

AUGUST KARL REISCHAUER.

Meiji Gakuin, Tokyo.

Introduction

The rival claims of four religions — Religious bewilderment— Religious syncretism — Old or new possess the field — Buddhism still strong — Importance of studying old religions — What is Buddhism ? — Great divisions and definitions.

Chapter I. Buddhist Origins 13

A. Gautama's Environment 14

India's pre-Buddhist history — Its religious literature

— Varied stages of thought — Pre-Buddhist God-idea, soul-theory, transmigration and Karma — General social and religious condition — Signs of a better day.

B. The Buddha's Life and Teaching 22

Place and time of birth — His family and training — His great quest — General philosophic presuppositions of his teachings, or the Three Conceptions — Four Noble Truths — Noble Eightfold Path — Gautama's system a practical ethic and a reduction — The great Intermediates— Karma and the self — The Buddha's mode of salvation — Peculiar emphasis of his system — Not an avowed atheist though God-idea reduced to a minimum

— Strong and weak points.

C. Success of the New Religion 41

Requirements of discipleship — Gautama's mode of life — Obstacles to the new faith — Dissensions within

— The woman problem — Gautama's last days, death and burial — Gautama better than his teachings.

xiii xiv CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter II. Development of Primitive Buddhism into Mahayana Buddhism 51

A. Buddhism of Asoka's Day 52

Asoka as a patron of Buddhism — Great Buddhist Council — Reforms and missionary propaganda — Buddhism becomes a world religion — Changes coming over Gautama's religion.

B. Rise of Mahayana Buddhism 57

Germs of the new type — The founder deified — Arhat and Bodhisattva ideals — Metaphysical speculations become characteristic — Causes of these changes

— Possible Western influences — Sources of change essentially Indian — Asvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Asanga and Vasubandhu — Possible Christian influence.

C. Spread of Buddhism through China .... 70

Introduction — Slow progress at first — Not pure Buddhism — Importation of scriptures and their translation — Anshikao and Lokaraksha — Growing popularity in fifth century — Pilgrimages to India and effect

— Bodhi Dharma — Persecutions by Confucianists — Buddhism and the Chinese genius — Extension of Buddhism to Korea.

Chapter III. Developments of Buddhism in Japan . 79

A. Introduction into Japan 79

Historic connections between Japan and Korea — Buddhist Mission well received — Opposition of the conservatives — Social and religious condition in sixth century — Buddhism as vehicle of superior civilization of the continent.

B. Rise of the Six Nara Sects 85

Sanron, Jojitsu, Hosso, Kusha, Kegon and Ritsu — Spread of general culture and development of art in Nara period — Worldly ambitions and political power of the monks.

C. Kyoto Sects 89

Emperor Kwammu and the monks — Founding of new capital at Kyoto — Dengyo Daishi and Tendai Sect

— K5b6 Daishi and Shiugon Sect — Religious syncretism — Buddhist influence and Kyoto's splendor — Worldly ambitions and spiritual decline of Kyoto sects.

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

D. The Sects of the Great Awakening 102

A voice in the wilderness — Genshin — Ryonin and first Amida Sect — Amidaism in pre-Amida sects — Honen and Jodo Sect — Shinran and Shin Sect — Comparison with the Buddhism of Gautama — Zen sects, Rinzai and Soto — Nichiren and the Nichiren Sect — Ji Sect — Buddhism of Kamakura period a real contribution to a world religion — Buddhism becomes indigenous to Japan.

E. Political Strife and Religious Decline . . . . 131

Civil wars of Ashikaga period — Outward prosperity of temples and prestige of monks — Spiritual impoverishment — A few good points in Buddhism of this period.

F. Religion in the Tokugawa Period 136

Reconstruction days — Catholic mission — The Great Trio — Catholics versus Buddhists — Closing the doors of Japan and suppression of Christianity — Partial revival of Buddhism — Obaku Sect — Neo-Conf ucianism the main source of spiritual life — Neo-Shinto — Oppositions to Buddhism — Mito School and the Restoration.

G. Buddhism in Meiji Era 152

Buddhism disestablished as state religion — New propaganda — Present-day sects and their numerical strength.

Chapter IV. The Bubdhist Canon as Known in Japan 158 Size of Northern canon, or canons — Chinese catalogues of canons — Standard Japanese edition — Varied and contradictory contents — Pali canon — Mahayana and Hinayana divisions — SUtra, Vinaya and Abhidharma Pitakas — Dates and various redactions of canons — Chi K'ais harmonization — Controversies between conservatives and liberals over relation between Hinayana , and Mahayana — Difficulty of knowing historic facts —

Valuable by-products — Varied use of scriptures by the different sects — Attempts to popularize scriptures to-day.

Chapter V. Outline of Main Doctrines of Japanese Buddhism . 183

A. Summary Statement 183 xvi CONTENTS

PAGE

B. Theory of Knowledge 184

Accommodated truth and absolute truth — Nescience and the Karma chain with Ignorance as first link.

C. Buddhist World Views 192

Hinayana world view — The Two Spheres — Analytical study of matter and mind — Apparent Mahayana world view, reality as void — True Mahayana world view, or the Middle Way — The essence of reality.

D. The Pluralistic World of Experience . , . .199

The Two Spheres — The Three Worlds — The timeless, boundless cosmos — The Three Realms — The Six Ways — The Four Holies — The Ten Worlds.

E. The God-idea of Japanese Buddhism .... 210

Popular and philosophic ideas widely different — Atheistic sects -^ Theistic sects not true theism — Pantheistic sects — The agnostic background of all philosophic conceptions — Religion of masses polytheistic — List of popular deities — Pantheism as philosophic background of popular polytheism -i Nobler conceptions of God held by some.

F. Man and His Condition 233

The origin and nature of man — IVIidway in the scale of beings — Man's present condition — Human life essentially evil — The cause of evil.

G. Salvation 240

The essence and goal of salvation — An escape from evil — An entrance into bliss — Salvation a matter of degrees — Meaning of Nirvana and Buddha state — Paradise and personal immortality — A shadowy hope undermined by agnostic spirit — Popular views crudely realistic — Conception of salvation as a life of righteousness not very strong — The Way to Salvation — The Way of the Law and th6 Way of Grace — Philosophic wisdom and religious faith — ^ The Way of Grace compared with Christian conception — How it breaks down philosophically and in its popular form — The extent and the " speed " of salvation.

H. Things to Come 264

Things to come in near future — Wheel of life keeps revolving — Glorious triumph of Buddhism when Buddhist Messiah appears — Things to come in distant

CONTENTS xvii

PAGE future — The four periods of a universe, Formation, Inhabitation, Destruction and Void — The endless repetition.

Chapter VI. Buddhist Ethics 268

A. General Aspects 268

Divorcing religion and ethics — The philosophy of the Good — The Arhat and Bodhisattva ideals — Enlightenment of the mind rather than enrichment of the entire personality — Mahayana ethics more altruistic — Contradiction between Buddhist psychology and the goal of Buddhist ethics.

B. The Vices and Virtues 277

The vices — Ignorance expressing itself in egoism as the cardinal vice — Primary vices — Secondary vices — Sin as a mere mistake — The virtues — Enlightenment or the "breaking of error" as the cardinal virtue — Virtue not positive and frequently stated in negative terms — List of virtues — Difference of standards for priests and laymen — The special virtues.

C. Buddhist Gold Nuggets, or Choice Quotations from Some of the Leading Buddhist Scriptures . . . 283

Chapter VII. The Place of Buddhism in Japanese Life — Past, Present and Future ..... 295

A. The Influence in the Past 295

A difficult question to determine — A vehicle of the superior civilization of the continent — It disseminated general culture — It created some of the arts and gi-eatly modified others — It expanded and enriched the thought-life and the religious life — It brought a wealtli of the externals of religion, religious art and ecclesiastical machinery.

B. The Place of Buddhism in Present-day Japan . . 307

The past conditions the present — Buddhists not creators of modern Japan — Considerable ground lost — Attempts at revival — Mostly imitations of Christian propaganda — Leadership passing into other hands.

\ C. The Place of Buddhism in the Future . . . .314 Lack of confidence in own future — The reasons — A criticism by a Japanese scholar — Character of the leadxviii CONTENTS

ers — Idolatry and ignorance of the scriptures — Various superstitions — Buddhist pessimism unsuited for a progressive people — Buddhist ethics based on a world-weary philosophy of life — Reform or revolution necessary— Cardinal defect of Buddhism its conception of truth — The baneful effects of its agnostic philosophy — Devitalizes otherwise good ethical teachings — Modern reformers and ethics without a religious basis — .. Can Buddhism lay hold on the Living God and remain Buddhism? — " The old order cbangeth."

PAGB

STUDIES m JAPANESE BUDDHISM

INTRODUCTION

Not many years ago there was on exhibition in an art gallery of Tokyo a remarkable picture. The picture was not exactly a masterpiece, but its subject matter was exceedingly suggestive. In the center stood a child, and grouped around it were four men, each beckoning it to follow. On the face of the child was an expression of bewilderment, of apparent perplexity as to what it should do. The child was meant to represent Japan, and the four men represented a Shinto priest, Confucius, Gautama Buddha and Jesus. The average visitor to the gallery gave this picture little more than a passing glance, but to the student of modern Japan it was of deep interest.

If there is anything characteristic of the life of the rising generation in Japan, especially of its thought-life and the realm of things spiritual, it is bewilderment and confusion ; for Japan is the meeting place of four great religions, viz., Shinto, Confucianism, Buddhism and Christianity, not to mention other thought and life currents which have been pouring into this land from all parts of the world during the last fifty or sixty years. It is not strange that the youth of Japan especially should be like the child in the picture — confused and perplexed as to whom or what they should follow. On the one hand are the voices and beckonings of the past — the thought-currents and life habits and customs of their fathers. These they would follow instinctively. But on the other hand they hear the persistent callings of the new and more alluring voices of the present and the future, wooings of western life and civilization. These seem to promise more than the old, but threaten if followed unreservedly to make too great the chasm between the Japanese people of to-day and past generations.

There is, of course, no insuperable difficulty in readjusting the old habits and customs to fit in with the new in the realm of the physical, though even here it is not as simple as it might seem to the outsider. To stand, for instance, at a modern railway station and listen to the clatter of the wooden clogs as the crowds hurry up and down the stairs suggests very forcibly that one is hearing something of the "clash of civilizations." Or to see aeroplanes and dirigibles speeding over paddy fields in which poor peasants are using implements as primitive as those used by Abraham makes one feel that modern Japan has still great chasms to bridge in even the physical realm. And even where they are being bridged the limited resources of the country tends to make the economic readjustments a very painful process. But, after all, it is in the realm of the spirit, in the higher and deeper sentiments and feelings, that the real difficulty of readjustment lies for the present generation. And what adds to the difficulty is the fact that among the so-called leaders in the thought-life of the nation there are so verv few who reallv understand the nature of the forces that are at work. On the one hand are the old-fashioned leaders, who would keep the rising generation bound down to the things of the past. On the other hand are the apostles of the new, who apparently think that they have done all that is required of them when they have doled out to their followers the contents of the latest book that has appeared. Those who are successfully bridging the chasm between the old and the new are few indeed, and it is no wonder that there should be so much confusion in the thought-life of modern Japan.

But it is not so much the general thought-life of Japan that we wish to consider here as it is the more distinctively religious life of the nation, if it is possible to separate this from the general. The picture, we said, represented four great religions as aspiring to give leadership to young Japan. This is hardly accurate, for as a matter of fact the three old religions of Japan are not separate and distinct from one another. Shinto, as we shall show in Chapter III, though the native religion of old Japan, was virtually incorporated into Buddhism about a thousand years ago, and while it was officially separated from the latter in the modern period it is impossible to draw any clear line between the two. And Confucianism really never existed as an independent religion in Japan, but was fostered largely by Buddhist leaders as a part of their own system. It is true that the Xeo-Confucianism of the Tokugawa period had a measure of independence and even opposed Buddhism to some extent, but even this was introduced and propagated first bv Buddhists and was itself as much Buddhism as Confucianism. As a matter of fact the three old religions of Japan have interpenetrated each other so completely that the average Japanese for centuries has regarded himself as more or less of an adherent of all three. It is Buddhism, however, which has supplied the matrix which holds the various elements together and so it may be said to represent all three in one. It has so completely adapted itself to things Japanese and incorporated everything that it found in its way that one can be a good Buddhist and not be disloyal to an>i:hing for which the other two ever stood. AMien it comes, however, to the fourth religion, the religion of Jesus Christ, the matter is very different, for no Japanese Christian in good and regular standing would regard himself as anything but a Christian, though he would insist that as such he can retain all that is good in the other three and all that is essential to make one a true and loyal citizen of the empire. And on the other hand few good Shintoists, Confucianists or Buddhists would pretend to be also good Christians, for it was the fashion for almost three centuries to look upon Christianity as an enemy of things Japanese ; and so the line between it and the old religions is drawn rather sharply. It would therefore be more correct to say that in the realm of religion there are two that aspire to guide the spiritual destiny of this great nation.

One naturally wonders whom of these spiritual guides the child of Japan will follow. There was a time a few years ago — and it is not altogether past now — when it almost looked as if the expression on the child's face was changing from one of confusion and bewilderment to one of indifference. Japan had followed the old guide for many centuries, sometimes very eagerly and at times only from afar. But during the last fifty years or so, as the rising tide of intelligence has made it impossible for many to rest content with the beliefs and practices of the past, there developed a surprising indifference to the old religious ideals, and in fact an indifference to religion as such. But no one familiar with human nature or human history can regard this save as a passing phase, for man is "incurably religious" and even a Comte must have at least a "Religion of Humanity," though he may regard the historic religions as phases of life which the race should outgrow as it advances. There are abundant signs that this indifference to religion so characteristic of young Japan a few years ago was only a temporary phenomenon. There is now again a remarkable interest in spiritual things, though it is perhaps too early to say to whom on the whole Japan will turn for leadership.

There are those who hold that Japan will neither follow her old religious guides nor turn to the old religion of the West newly introduced, but that there will have to be a New Religion if her allegiance is to be won. This new religion may borrow some things from the old but not exclusively from any one of them or all of them. It will have to be a sort of syncretism made up from the best elements that can be gotten together, no matter from where they come. Just as in other spheres Japan has borrowed the best that could be found and adapted these things to her needs ; so she must do in religious matters. One can only smile at the ignorance of the nature of religion and religious history which underlies this view, for while it is quite possible for a New Religion to arise, it is rather certain that it will not come into existence as a result of a few wise heads getting together and saying to one another, " Come now, let us tear down our old religions and from the best fragments let us build up something new which will fit our case better."

Then again there are those who would seek to harmonize the claims of the existing religions by emphasizing the thought that all religions are but different forms of one and the same phenomenon, and that therefore at bottom they are essentially the same. And since all religions are made of essentially the same stuff, there ought to be no insuperable obstacle in fusing them into one grand whole; if not into an organic union, then at least into one great cooperative enterprise for promoting righteousness and peace.

In so far as these broad-minded leaders would do away with the bitter jealousies and strifes between the existing religions, one cannot but have profound respect for their good intentions; but when their efforts are based on the assumption that all religions are essentially one in their great fundamentals and differ only on minor points or expression, one can only pity their lack of understanding. Of course, there is a sense in which all historical religions may be said to be but different forms of Religion, i.e. different aspects of one and the same reality, but this is true only in such a general sense that the statement is practically meaningless. The very fact that it is almost impossible to make a definition of religion which is anything but an empty generalization which includes all only because it includes really nothing very vital of any, should be sufficient proof. Even in such advanced religions as Buddhism and Christianity the radical differences in fundamentals ought to be apparent to any one who is at all familiar with their central teachings. It is inconceivable that the two could ever be merged into one without one or the other giving up some of its essential characteristics. Of course, it is quite possible that Buddhism would be willing to compromise with Christianity and seek to absorb it just as it has done with other religions with which it has come into contact, but that is only possible because Japanese Buddhism really stands for nothing definite and is made up of the most glaring contradictions in even fundamentals. It is impossible to think that intelligent Christians would be willing to be merged into a sj'stem which would both afiirm and deny at one and the same time everything vital for which they stood. Not only does Christianity differ from Buddhism in the answers which it makes to the great problems of life, but because of this difference the atmosphere in which Christians live their daily life and do the work of the world is not that of the typical Buddhist. This will appear as we proceed with our study of Japanese Buddhism in these pages. Here we simply wish to state that those who regard Buddhism and Christianity as in substantial agreement on the fundamentals of religion may be nearer the truth than the old-fashioned polemists who conveniently marked all religions other than their own as false, but they are not very much nearer.

Now in the third place there are representatives of the old religions of Japan who, realizing that their religion has lost a good deal of ground in recent years, nevertheless believe that the situation can be redeemed by making certain reforms and so winning back the affection of the people. Thus there are signs on all hands of a certain kind of vitality both in Shinto and in some of the more progressive sects of Buddhism. These reforms, however, are little more than patching up a few glaring defects of the old by borrowing certain strong points from Christianity, and they do not go deep enough to make the old religions adequate for modern conditions. In fact many an adherent of the old is apparently fearful that the great days of his faith are past forever and that the future is very uncertain. That is, there is no very widespread confidence on the part of the adherents of the old in the future of their own religion.

And finally there are the representatives of Christianity who believe that the future belongs largely to them. In fact that is one of the great characteristics of Japanese Christians which distinguishes them from the followers of the old faiths, they have confidence in the future of their own rehgion. The child Japan, they believe, will follow Jesus Christ as its guide, and it is this faith that is overcoming the difficulties in the way. The measure of success which Christianity is having in Japan justifies this belief, but at the same time there is also good reason to believe that the victory will not be an easy one. The old religions of Japan are not, as some seem to think, about ready to give up the field. Though it is true that they do not have the hold on the hearts of the people they once had, this does not mean that Christianity therefore has an easy task. When the late Bishop Honda of the Japanese Methodist Church was once asked what he thought of the great motto, "The Evangelization of the World in This Generation," he replied very modestly, " It is a good motto, a very good motto for this generation; and I think it will be a good motto for the next generation too."