Self-help a hundred years ago

Front matter

Self-Helr a hunrrfd years AG(

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Chapter I

DR. SHUTE BARRINGTON, THE FIRST CO-OPERATIVE BfSnOP.

The three distinguished men who furnished the inspiration, the invention, and the advocacy of the remarkable devices of self-help promulgated at the end of the last century were Bishop Barrington, Count Eumford, and Sir Thomas Bernard, who inherited the title after the original publication of the famous Reports associated v/ith his name.

Shute Barrington, successively Bishop of Llandafif Salisbury, and Durham, was the sixth and youngest son of John Shute, first Viscount Barrington in the peerage of Ireland, by Anne, daughter and co-heiress of Sir William Daines. The bishop was born 2(ith. of May, 1734, at Becket, Berkshire, and lost his father early. He was educated at Eton, was afterwards a gentleman commoner ofMerton College, Oxford, where he took B.A. degree, afterwards M.A. By the interest of his brother William, the second Lord Barrington, he was aj)pointed in 1760 Chaplain in ordinary to George III., afterwards Canon of Christ Church, and took the degree of D.C.L. in 1762.

He was promoted in 1768 to a canonry in St. Paul's, which he afterwards exchanged for a stall at Windsor. He was consecrated Bishop of Llandaff in 1769. In the following year he issued a second edition of his father's

^ SELF-HELP A HUNDRED TEARS AGO.

" Miscellanea Sacria," in 3 vols. In 1782 lie was translated to the See of Salisbury. In 1791 he succeeded Dr. Tlinrlow in the rich See of Durham, into which he madea iniblic entry, with interchange of courtesies. Barrington presided for thirty-five years over the See of Durham. He was a vigorous champion of the Protestant establishment, of which his father had been among the foremost supporters, and, dreading the revival of their political power, he was zealously opposed to granting any further concessions to the Eoman Catholics. His tract, entitled " The Grounds on which the Church of England Separated from the Church of Rome," was generally esteemed by his contemporaries as one of the most valuable pamphlets on the subject. jNIuch discussion followed its publication. His opinion was that the corruption of the Church ot Rome accounted for the French Revolution. Yet he was willing to grant the Roman Catholics every degree ot toleration short of political power and establishment, and he offered not only financial assistance, but also the utmost hospitality to the French emigrant bishops and clergy.

The Bishop died on 25th March, 1826, at his house in Cavendish-square, at the age of 92. At that time he was Count Palatine and custos rotulorwni of Durham, visitor ot Balliol Cullege, Oxford, a trustee, by election, of the British Museum, and president of the Society for Bettering the Condition of the Poor, and of the School for Indigent Blind. lie left numerous legacies to charities, and provided for the establishment of the Barrington Society for Promoting Religious and Christian Piety in the Diocese of Durham. Besides other works, a large number of occasional pamphlets were collected in a volume — sermons, charges, and tracts. He was author of

DR. SHUTE BARRINGTON, BISHOP OF DURHAM. 3

"The Political Life of Wm. Wildman, Viscount Barrington," compiled from original papers by his brother, Shute, Bishop of Durham, 1815. The bishop was twice married, in 1761 to Lady Diana Beauclerc, daughter of second Duke of St. Albans, and in 1770 to Jane, daughter of Sir John Cruise, Bart., who died at Mongewell, 1807. One biography of the bishop says he had no children, another says he had three daughters. Since no one has a right to children who cannot afford to keep them, and the bishop could do it, I adhere to the record which gives him three daughters.

At Salisbury, Dr. Shute Barrington greatly distinguished himself by his liberality in promoting the repairs of the cathedral. The palace was repaired at an expense of £7,000. He established a fund of £2,000, the interest of which is distributed among the poor clergy.

Barrington held the See of Durham for thirty-five yeai.s — only three bishops have exceeded that period. This was said in 1828.

The qualities of this distinguished prelate will cause his name to be long venerated in the history of the English Church. His learning was considered various and extended through all the branches of knowledge connected with his profession. In his day he was counted a preacher of no mean order; and as a good speaker in the House of Lords. For his highest preferments he was mainly indebted to his own merit. His first preferment he owed to his brother, and afterwards it was the king himself who advanced him. Barrington's final promotion to Durham was the unsolicited act of the king, but not without tho hearty concurrence of Mr. Pitt, who was content to waive the pretension of at least one candidate out of deference to the king's wishes.

The following lines, signed " S. Danelm," were inscribed by him on an urn in the centre of a group of elms at Mongewell : —

" To the memory of my two highly-valued friends, Thoonas Tyrrwhit, Esq., and Rev. C. M. Cracherode, M.A.'*

In this once favour'd walk, beneath these elms,

The fervid time, which each returning year

To Friendship's call devoted. iSuch things were;

Lut are, alas ! no more.

A relative of Mrs. Barrington, it is said, ha\'ing experienced some embarrassments and disappointments in life, wished to amend his situation (being a military officer) by entering the Church, thinking that the Bishop would provide handsomely for him. On making the necessary application to his kinsman, he was asked what preferment would satisfy him. To tliis home question he readily answered about £oOO would make him a happy man. " You shall have it," said his lordship, " but not out of the patrimony of the Churcli. I will not deprive a worthy and regular divine to provide for a necessitous relation. You shall have the sum you mention yearly out of my own pocket." This was a noble answer of the bishop, not very common in the Church in this day.

The union of the gentleman and scholar was considered to be well exemplified in the bishop. His manners were courteous, and dignified ; his comjxisition was described in those days as " chaste and classical." His piety, devout, fervent, and charitable. He was conspicuous in the eyes of the world for liis great munificence. Every charitable scheme was headed with his name.

No one better understood the true vahie of money, ar

BR. SnUTE BARRINGTON, BISHOP OF BURHAM.

employed it more as an instrument of usefulness for others. It was stated in the newspapers that in 1825 he sent no less than G74 begging letters to the mendicity officer for investigation.

Barrington's conversation was cheerful, and even humorous. He was tall and majestic, yet in his youth he was supposed to be far from possessing a vigorous constitution. He lived with few attacks of illness to the age of ninety-two, and fifty-seventh year of his episcopal functions. During the last year of his life he stayed at Worthing, Sussex, at Warwiclc House, one time the residence of the Princess Charlotte of Wales.

It was stated that his decease occurring after twelve o'clock on the 25th of March, 1826, it being quarter day, it gave his representatives emoluments of half a year. The bishop's will occupied forty-three sheets.

Such were the character and career of the first co-operative bishop. It was singular that he should spend the last year of his life at Worthing, where, at the time of his death, co-operation was re-commencing. In the Social Eeports no personal particulars are given of Count Rumford, or of Bishop Barrington, or of Sir Thomas Bernard. The preceding biographical facts and those given in the next two chapters have been collected elsewhere.

CHAPTER II. SINGULAR CAREER OF COUNT RU^rFORD

Count Rumford, the most practical philanthropist of his time, bore the name of Benjamin Thompson. He was an American, born in Concord, which became famous during the war of Independence, and to which I went in 1879 to \-isit Emerson, who had added to it the attraction of his name. The town was known as Rumford when Thompson was born in it. Xext to Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Thompson was the most ingenious philosopher America has ]->roduced, and he exceeded Franklin in the romance of his life. Thompson was taught by a clergyman named Bernard. Whether this clergyman was related to the Mr. Bernard whose name the reader will often see in these pages, I know not. From his infancy, Thompson's attention was turned to science. Before the age of fourteen he could trace without assistance, and calculate the phases of an eclipse of the sun. Though destined for business, he could apply himself to nothing but his favourite objects of study. He attended Harvard. At a very early period he was launched into the world. " My ideas," he said to friend, " were not yet fixed; one scheme succeeded another, and perhaps I should have acquired a habit of indecision and inconstancy, perhaps I should have lived poor and miserable to the end of my days if a woman had not loved me, if she had not given me existence, a habitation, and an independent fortune. I took a wife, oi

SINGULAR CAREER OF COUNT RUMFORD. 7

rather she took me. At nineteen years of age I married the widow of Colonel Rolfe, the daughter of the Rev. Mr. Walker, a respectable clergyman of Rumford." At the commencement of the American troubles Thompson, then twenty, was drawn naturally to the Royalist party through the civil and military appointments he held. He was obhged to abandon his home, his wife, and his daughter, who was just born, and seek an asylum at Boston, then occupied by English troops. His wife he never saw again, and his daughter not for twenty years, when she joined him in Europe.

Thompson was received with distinction by the commander-in-chief of the British army, and ordered to raise a regiment for the king. In 1776 he came to England with important despatches to the Grovernment. He was made Secretary of the Province of Greorgia, an office which he never exercised. In 1778 he became a member of the Royal Society. In 1779 he went on board the "Victory," commanded by Sir Charles Hardy, who wa? his friend. He passed that whole campaign with the grand fleet of England, making experiments and repeating them on different ships. On his return he wrote an article on " Naval Architecture." He joined to it a code of signals for the navy which have never been published. Being appointed Under-Secretary of State in 1780, he was constantly employed in the business of the American War. The King's American Dragoons were raised by his friends, and he was made lieut.-colonel. This determined him to return to America to serve with his regiment. He assumed the command in 1782, in New York, and Prince William Henry, the Duke of Clarence, delivered the colours to him with his own hand. In 1783 he returned to England, and his first object was to obtain compensation for the American officers, which he did in spite of strong opposition. The king made him colonel, although it was only two years since he was made Lieut.-Colonel. On quitting England he landed at Boulogne along with the celebrated Gibbon, who describes him as " the soldier, philosopher, statesman, Thompson." "SMiile in Bavaria he received an invitation from the Elector to enter his service. Tiiompson returned to England to gain the king's permission not only did he gain that, but the king made him a knight. He returned to Bavaria Sir Benjamin Thompson and became colonel of the horse, and general aide-decamp to the sovereign, who wished to obtain his services.

.Sir Benjamin employed the first four years at Munich in acquiring the political and statistical knowledge necessary for realising the plans which his philanthrop}'^ suggested to him for improving the condition of the lower orders. He did not neglect his studies, though political and literary honours poured in upon him.

The year 1789 witnessed the accomplishment of his project. The house of Industry at ]\Ianheim was established ; the islands of ]\Iulhan, near Manheim, which had been nothing but a pestilential morass, useless for culture, and pernicious to health, were joined together and transformed into a fertile garden consecrated to the industry of the garrison. The military academy was founded, a scheme of military police to deliver the country from vagabonds, robbers, and beggars ; schools of industry belonging to every regiment were founded to employ the wives and children of the soldiers.

At the beginning of 1790 the House of Industry at Munich was formed — that line establishment which the count has described in his essays, for bettering the condition of the p'O-. Mendicity w.-.s completely

SINGULAR CAREER OF COUNT RUMFORD. 9

abolished ; nor has it again made its appearance in Bavaria since that memorable epoch. The beautiful English garden in Munich was begun, and military gardens in all the garrisons. The sovereign expressed his obligation for these numerous services by making him Lieut-general of his armies and giving him a regiment of artillery. He was created, in 1791, a Count of the Holy Eoman Empire, and honoured with the order of the White Eagle. He returned to England in 1795 to publish his essays and direct the attention of the English nation towards the plans of public and domestic economy which he had realised in Germany. He visited Ireland, where every testimony of honour and gratitude was lavished upon him, and introduced several improvements into the hospitals and houses of industry, and left models of a number of mechanical inventions. In London he directed alterations in the Foundling Hospital, and he presented to the Board of Agriculture several machines as models for imitation. At this time he placed £1,000 in the English and American funds to establish a premium to be given away every two years to the author of the most useful discovery on light or heat. For some time he was head of the police in Bavaria, but ill-health caused him to return to England, where he lived as a private individual. The American Grovernment invited him back to his native country, but he did not go. In Scotland he was consulted on the means of improving the existing charitable institutions, and on the measures for abolishing mendicity. The work was undertaken without loss of time, and was completely successful. During his stay in Edinburgh he employed himself in Heriot's Hospital, superintending improvements which he invented, with regard to the employment of fael in the preparation of food, and the managers in return sent him a silver box. In 1803 he married the widow of the celebrated Lavoisier, but separated from her and lived a secluded life four miles from Paris.

No man had more the spirit of order : everything was classed : no object was ever allowed to remain an instant out of its place : and he was never a single instant beyond his time in an appointment. lie died August 21, 1814. His literary productions have been translated into many languages. His essays contain — "Account of Establishment for the Poor at Munich." " The Fundamental Principles on which General Establisliments for the Relief of the Poor may be Formed in all Countries." " Of Chimney Fireplaces," "Management of Fire," "Construction of Kitchen Fireplaces and Kitchen Utensils." Another work was entitled " Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee, and the Art of Making it in Perfection."

Such were the wonderful career and diversified talents of a man who could turn from the military command of a nation to the invention of a soup-boiler.

When Count Rumford died he was a member of the learned, scientific, and artistic societies of six nations. Kniglit of the orders of the White Eagle and St. Stanislaus, Chamberlain, Privy Councillor of State, and Lieutenant-Greneral in the service of his most Serene Highness the Elector Palatine, reigning Duke of Bavaria, colonel of his regiment of artillery, and commander-in-chief of the general staff of his army.

In the library of Mr, Joseph Cowen (Stella Hall, l>laydon-on-Tyne), I have, since writing the last chapter, found a portrait of the Count. His profile resembles that of Dr. Priestley in Wedgcwood's medallion of that philosopher. The nearest approach to the Count the reader can

SIXGULAIi CAREER OF COUNT RUMFORD. 11

see is in the profile of Mr. A. H. D. Acland, M.P. Sitting on the platform of the Town Hall of Newcastle-on-Tyne, at the celebration meeting of the opening of the new co-operative stores of that city, I was struck by Mr. Acland's resemblance to the Count. Having examined Count Eumford's portrait that afternoon, his face was in my mind at the meeting.

Chapter III. Life Of Sik Thomas Bernard

It was only after much search after all the Bernards that ever were, that I came upon hira whose name has so often occurred in these chapters. There was St. Bernard (of Fountain, in Burgundy), born in 1091. There was also a Bernard of Menthon, a monk of Annecy, who in 923 built two hospitals on the Alps for the reception of monks. An Andrew Bernard, of Tholouse, Poet Laureate to Henry Vn., and a Catherine Bernard, born at Eouen, who died in 1712, and who obtained three times the poetical prize of the French Academy, and wrote the tragedy of Brutus. There was Charles Bernard, who was born in Paris, 1571, and wa-: the king's counsellor and histriographer, and Claude Bernard, born in Dijon in 1588. He was founder of " The Schoxjl of Tliirty-tliree," so named for the number of years Clirist was upon eartli ; and P^dward Bernard, born in 1G38 at Parler's Ferry, in Northamptonshire, a divine of note, and especially as a mathematician ; he was appointed to carry out the ]>ublication of works of all the ancient mathematicians ; Francis Bernard, a physician to James II., whose curious library sold for £1,000 in 1711. •lames l><*rnard, a Protestant divine, who was born at Nions, in Daui)hiue, 1G58, was famous for mathematical knowledge and books. John Frederick Bernard, a bookseller ot Amsterdam, was a great scientific author. John Stephen Bernard, a physician, born in Berlin, 1718, projected an

LIFE OF SIR THOMAS BERNARD. 13

edition of the Greek medical writers. A Nicholas Bernard took degrees at Oxford in 1628, and afterwards became chaplain to Cromwell. There were Peter Joseph Bernard, a French poet, born in 1710 — Richard Bernard, Rector of Batecombe, in Somersetshire, died in 1641, and who compiled a " Thesaurus Biblicus." There was a Bernard of Brussels, in the 16th century, a famous painter of hunting scenes — Samuel Bernard, a French painter, who died in 1687, professor of the Royal Academy in Paris. All the Bernards had books, usefulness, or philanthropy, in their blood. It is curious that the best of dogs for saving life is a Bernard. These particulars I found in the library of Daniel Baker, of Balsall Heath, Birmingham, and in the library of W. H. Duignan, of Rushall, Walsall, I found the biographical facts which follow : —

Sir Thomas Bernard, the father of the Thomas Bernard of these chapters, was born in Lincolnshire, and educated at Westminster School, whence he was elected to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1729, and took his masters degree in 1736. He next became a student of the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar. In 1758 he was appointed governor of New Jersey, and in 1760 governor of Massachusetts Bay. In 1769 he was created a baronet, and on the commencement of the Rebellion he returned to England. He died in 1779, leaving a numerous family Sir Francis published the Latin odes of Anthony Alsop in 1752.

Sir Thomas Bernard, the colleague of Bishop Barrington, was, according to a contemporary writer, born at Lincoln, in 1750. He received his education at Harvard College, in New England, and on his return to his native country, became a student of Lincoln's Inn. In 1780 he was called to the bar, but did not practise in the courts, contenting liimself with the conveyancing business. In 1795 he was appointed treasurer of the Foundling Hospital. In 1809 he succeeded to the title of baronet, by the death of his brother in the West Indies. About this time he was created Doctor of Civil Law, at Oxford, and he was also chancellor of the diocese of Dui-ham. He died at Leamington Spa, in Warwickshire, July 1, 1818, and was buried with his first wife, in the chapel of the Foundling Hospital.

Another account describes him as " an English philanthropist," and explains the grounds of his friendship with Count Rumford, with whom he was a fellow student at Harvard, and like him became wealthy by marriage.

Sir Thomas Bernard adopted for the profession of the law, and commenced practising at the bar in 1780; but having two years afterwards married a rich heiress, he quitted his forensic pursuits, and gave himself up to the charitable employment of devising and executing schemes for ameliorating the condition of the poor and suffering classes of society. He first turned his attention to the state of the Foundling Hospital in London, in which he effected many valuable improvements. In 1792 a society for the relief of the poor was constituted on a plan which he had sketched. He was among the first to direct public attention to the condition of children employed in chimney-sweeping and in cotton-spinning. He took also an active interest in promoting tlie spread of vaccination. In 1799 he entered warmly into the views of Thompson, a patriotic American, who had conceived the design of establishing in this country a corporation of learned men, similar to the Institute of Franci^ ; and two years afterwards, mainly through their joint labours, the Eoyal Institution, of Albemarle-street, in London, was founded.

LIFE OF SIR THOMAS BERNARD. 15

ile afterwards formed two other establishments, the British gallery for the exhibition of pictures by the old masters of Great Britain, and the Alfred Club for the advancement of literature. Between 1793-1817 he published " Observations on the Proceedings of the Friends of the Liberty of the Press," 8vo. 2, " A Letter to the Bishop of Durham on the Measures under Consideration for Promoting the Kelief of the Poor," Svo. 3, " The Barrington School, being an account of that founded by the Bishop of Durham at Bishop Auckland," Svo. 4, " An Account of the Supply of Fish for the Poor," Svo. 5, " Spurina, or the Comforts of Old Age," Svo. 6, " Case of the Salt Duties," Svo. 7, "The Cottager's Meditations," 12mo. 8, "Dialogue '.t- 1 ween Monsieur Francois and John English."

CHAPTER IV. OI'JGIN OF BISHOP BAURINGTON'S SOCIETy

Few persons, as has been already said, have any adequate idea of the wealth of self-helpmg views and devices extant in England a century ago. The germ-principles of movements which have since established themselves, and of others now advocated, were all entertained by men of high position at the end of the last century. They not only approved, they advocated wise and liberal plans of social reform ; when their inspiration and guidance were withdrawn, the people took up some of the beneficent schemes in their own way. Then they were opposed by the classes above them, who were ignorant, prejudiced, and devoid of the generous wisdom of the eminent men who preceded them. The readers of these pages will be surprised to find with what vehemence, circumstance, and intelligence, noblemen, clergymen, and gentlemen advocated " Three acres and a cow " for all agricultural labourers. The Cow Question was the most popular device of a former day. Mr. Jesse Collings and ^Slr. Arch, friends of the cow, have been thought to be dangerous and Utopian innovators, advocating an unknown and absurd thing. We have gone back, from not knowing what has gone before. Even in respect to co-operation in the »Store and in the Workshop the working people to-day are scarcely on the level of their " betters" a hundred years ago. Undoubtedly we have advanced the Store, and organised that form of Co-operation, hut still Workshop labour limps behind, and is glad to accept the assistance of very wild friends — the

ORIGIN OF BISHOP BAItlllNGTONS SOCIEIY. 17

Social Democrats — for want of more stalwart advocates of self-helping improvement.

When collecting information for a History of Co-operation I made inquiries in America for facts among the scattered co-operators of the early days of the movement, whom I knew to be in the United States. One day I received by the American post, from a hand unknown, a few time-stained pages, cut out of an old volume, containing an account of a Co-operative Store established in 1795, by Dr. Shute Barrington, Bishop of Durham — "Shuts BarringtoD, George the Third's Bishop," as he "is still called on the Tyne side. I had often heard him spoken of affectionately there. His good memory has descended to this generation. At the Newcastle Congress of 1884, Dr. Lightfoot, the present Bishop of Durham, who was the President that year, asked me, " In what volume of the works of his famous predecessor, his accountof the early Co-operative Mongewell Store could be found. He (Dr. Lightfoot) had looked through the works of Dr. Barrington in the library at Auckland Castle, without meeting with it." I answered that I had never seen the book. If it existed it was in unknown hands in America ; and though the United States was a large country to look for a lost volume in, I would make inquiries. A notice in the Co-operative JS'eivs brought me the remainder of the missing volume. It came from Mr. Peter Sidebotham, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, who had bought it — a dilapidated, coverless, mis-stitched old book, for a few pence, many years ago, at a " Cheap Jack " auction in the Market Place of Hyde, Cheshire, in this country. Mr. Sidebotham says, " There has been a special providence that saved it from destruction." It was the only book he left at home at Hyde when lie went out to America in 1 853. All other books he had he took with him and lost them all at the Providence, Rhode Island, Depot, in August of the same year, owing to a train collision and baggage smashing between the Boston and Worcester trains, in which 27 persons were either killed or wounded. All Mr. Sidebotham's baggage was destroyed, and he might himself have been destroyed, but, through his inability to get a ticket in time, he was unable to rejoin the cars, to which he owed his escape. It ought to be added that it was owing to Mrs. Sidebotham's thoughtfulness that Bishop Barrington's book was preserved, for when she went out to America to join her iiusband, she took it over with her.

I had the book rearranged in its proper order, its worn leaves repaired, those cut from it and sent to me formerly, replaced and duly bound in ecclesiastical morocco. I sent it to the Bishop of Durham. This volume was the first of a series of which four had come into the possession of Mr. Alderman llallett, D.L., of Brighton. Being favoured by him with their use, I have enriched this series of chapters with relevant facts and new papers, not included in the original book.

The original volume of the first edition issued (the same that I received from America), contains the best papers, the names of the early subscribers to its funds and the amounts they gave, which do not appear in any second edition nor in anay subsequent publication. The first title-page of the book was this : —

THE FlliST KEPOnX OF THE SOCIETY FOR

CETrEUIXG TIIK CONDITION AND INCIIEASING Tllli CO.MFOllTS OF THE POOR.

LONDON':

Printed by W. Bulmer i Co., for T. Becl.ct. Booksdler. Pall Alall.

ORIGIN OF BISHOP BARRINGTONS SOCIETY. 19

The society took measures to have their organ put well about the publishing world, for they announce that it was sold by J. Hat chard, 173, Piccadilly. Also by Eobson, Bond-street ; Payne, Mews'-gate ; Rivington, St. Paul's Churchyard ; Egerton, Whitehall ; Cadell and Davies, Strand; and Vernor and Hood, Poultry. Also by Todd, York ; Hazard, Bath ; Akenhead and Sons, Newcastle ; Pennington, Durham ; Browne, Hull ; Easton, Salisbury ; Trewman, Exeter ; Clarke, Manchester ; and Hough, Gloucester.

This shows that the promoters of the society were men of business. It must have taken much correspondence and the co-operation of many active friends to secure the consent of all these publishers, who probably received copies on sale to keep in stock. In those days the post was dilatory and expensive.

Sir Thomas Bernard was the editor of the volumes. He was probably the father of Dr. Bernard, of Oxford, who held an official position in one of the Universities. He had interest in social ideas, was acquainted with Eobert Owen, and sent letters to the Neiv Moral World about 1835. Sir Thomas Bernard, as the reader will see, had great mastery of social questions, and was an eloquent writer. It was his pen which gave coherence to the social reports, and supplemented them by wise notes and *• observations."

Writing to William Wilberforce, M.P., in 1808, Mr. Bernard says : — " You can recall to your memory that when I first proposed the subject (of this society) to the Bishop of Durham, ]\Ir. Eliot, and yourself, I deprecated every attempt at early and rapid progress." JNIr. Bernard must have had great enthusiasm to expect any progress at all in those days when the excesses of the French

20 SELF-HELP A HUNDRED YEAItS AGO.

Eevolutionists, to whom tyranny had denied all experience in nation-making, were producing reaction against all freedom, and distrust of the people as the dangerous classes.