Sardinia and its resources

Preface

Some explanation for venturing to bring the following pages before the Public seems to be needed.

The Author was intrusted with a Commission in connection with commercial enterprizes in Sardinia, which necessitated a personal visit to the Island of some months duration, and, in the discharge of that duty^, he had to penetrate all parts of the country, he was brought into direct personal communication with the Provincial and Communal Authorities and principal landowners and merchants, and in almost every district the Public records and Official Statistics had to be consulted.

The best possible opportunities were thus afforded for obtaining authentic information as to the various resources of the country, its agriculture, mines, forests, fisheries, railways, manufactures and general commerce.

Whilst thus engaged no thoughts of " writing a book „ were present to the author's mind, and it was not till his labours were nearly completed, that the suggestion was made, that the materials were at hand for presenting to the Public some trustworthy descriptive particulars ot a Country wich was a frrra incognita almost, though one of the oldest and most interesting countries in the world.

The suggestion was a tempting one, but doubts and difficulties arose, and it was not without much diffidence and many misgivings that the task was undertaken. It was felt that a mere resume of statistical information, however carefully compiled and deftly put together, would meet a very limited demand, and that someting more was needed to render such a book attractive to the generality of the reading Public ; and it occurred to the Author, that, as he had made himself generally acquainted with the institutions and antiquities of the Island, and as at the various places he had visited, and when the guest of friendly residents, he had taken part in their social games and festivities, had attended their fetes and public ceremonials, and, being a keen sportsman, had always joined their hunting excursions, (many a '^ Caccia grossa „ after moufflon deer and wild-boar having been arranged for his amusement) here were to be found the materials for the " missing link „ — and he has accordingly interwoven such social and sporting descriptions prefaced with sketches of the history, institutions, and antiquities of the Island, as seemed to him best adapted for supplying what was felt to be wanting.

The Author is very conscious of the many imperfections of his work — arising from his own unskilfulness in the task he has undertaken. He can only plead in defence, that this is his first essay, and that whatever the demerits of the book may be, it will at all events have the merit of giving a reliable description of the state and condition of a country, of which very little is generally known, and in which there is much that is specially interesting.

ROME —

March 1885,

Table Of Contents

Dedication and Preface Page 1 to 3

Chapter I

Introductory - Situation - Resume of History - Abo- -rigines - Libyans - Iberians - Trojans - Canaanites - Plioe- -nicians - Carthaginians - Romans - Vandals - Saracens - Pisans - Genoese - Giudici - Spain - Austria - Savoy - and Italy Page 3 to 16

CHAPTER 11.

Christianit}' - Introduction - First Bishops - Church- Establishment - Priest-hood - Tithes - Education - Mona- -steries - Convents - Jesuits - Inquisition - Celebrated Citi- -zens - Tigellius - Deacon Hillary - Bishop Lucifer - Popes Hilary and St. Symmachus - La Frasso - Azuni - Mario - Historical Events - Bonaparte - Lord Nelson - Garibaldi.

Page 17 to 28

Chapter III

Geological formation - Physical aspects - Mountains - Rivers-Lakes - Stagni - Seasons - Winds - Climate - Malaria - Salubrity Page 29 to 38

Chapter IV

Antiquarian Remains - Division - Nurhags - Sepolture dei Giganti - Perdas fittas - Perdas lungas - Walls - Cells - Temples - Grottoes - Idols - Tombs - Coins - Vases - Scara- -bees - Ornaments - Armour - Ancient Cities - Roads - Mile- -stones - Monuments - Inscriptions - Catbedrals - Churches.

Page 39 to 59.

Chapter V

Population - Language - Classes - Nobles - Ecclesiastics - Lawyers - Doctors - National, Provincial, and Communal Representation - Laws and their Administration - Feuda- -lism - Land transfer - Taxation - Import and Exports.

Page Gl to 74

Chapter VI

Land - Extent - Proprietorship - Tenure - Division - Mode of Letting - System of cultivation - Ploughing - Sowing - Harrowing - Harvesting - Thrashing - Wheat - Barley - Oats - Beans - Peas - Cattle - Sheep - Goats - Pigs - Mules and Asses - Horses - Government Stud - Vines - Olives - Oranges and Lemons - Fruits - Flowers - Vegeta- -bles - Tobacco Page 75 to 93

Chapter VII

Forests - Extent - History - Oak - Ilex - Cork - Poplar - Birch - Ash - Walnut - Chestnut - Maple - Bark - Charcoal -

Cork - Ashes - Guardie Forestall - Government Supervision - Forest-laws - Rain-fall - Suggestions . Page 95 to 108

Chapter VIII

Mines - Mining Laws - System of working - Lead and Silver - Manganese - Zinc - Copper - Iron - Coal and Lignite - Nickel - Marble - Granite - Cla}^ - Porpliyr}^ - Agates - Sar- -donyx - Cornelian - Amethyst - Roman workings - Present condition - Future prospects. . . . Page 109 to 124

Chapter IX

Trades industries and Manufactures - Salt - Wine - Oil - Flour - Cheese - Butter - Honey - Soap - Potash - Alkali - Soda - Pottery - Tanning - Lime-burning - Brick making - Gunpowder - Lucifer matches - Beer and Aerated waters - Handicraft-trades - Labour .... Page 125 to 144

Chapter X

Railways - Origin - Cavour and Depretis ■ Con- -c6ssion - Formation of Compan}^ - Its history - English Contractors - Fresh Convention - Completion of main lines - Future extensions - Administration - Permanent Way - Traffic - Locomotive - Working expenses - Government ar- -rangement - General remarks . . . Page 145 to 176

Chapter XI

Festivals - Origin - Religious services - Feasting - Reunions - Easter Ceremonies - Santa Maria - Valverde -

Sant'Efisio - La Madonna del Mateno - Vergine dei sette dolori - San Priamo - Maggio - Saint John - La Varda - Correiolei - Grammatigu - Compare e Comare - Supersti- -tions - Las Spungas - Accabatura - Tarantula - Sardonic Grin - Timoria - Relics - Heathen customs and English Faii-s Page 177 to 192

CHAPTER Xn.

Sporting - Game - Moufflon - Red Deer - Fallow Deer - Wild-Boar - Hares - Rabbits - Bustards - Partridges - Patro Ruale - Woodcock - Quail - Snipe - Wildduck - Wild Geese - Eagles - Hawks - Vultures - Flamingoes - Caccia grossa - Campagna and Coast shooting - Trout and River fishing

Page 193 to 216

CHAPTER XHL

Characteristics - Men - Women - Dress - Costumes - Manners and Customs - Theatres and Clubs - Servants - Horses and Carriages - Courtship - Marriage - Child-birth - Funerals Page 217 to 236

CHAPTER XIV.

Cagliari - Sassari - Iglesias - Tempio - Alghero - Bosa - Oristano - Nuoro - Macomer - Porto-Torres - Terra-Nova - Islands - Universities - Schools - Museums - Hospitals - Asylums - Public Buildings - Charitable Institutions - Workhouses - Water - Works - Houses - Streets and Drainage - Markets Pag 237 to 258

CHAPTER XV.

Miscellaneous - Mineral Springs - Natural Grottoes - Rocking Stones - Roads - Hotels - National Games - Horse Racing - Tirai de Pei - Shepherd's Hut - Ballo Tondo - Music - Postal and Telegraph Service - Vendetta and Reconciliation - Similarity of Words - Guide Books - Correction of errors - Thanks .../... Page 259 to 292

CHAPTER XVI.

Recapitulation - Historical - Agricultural - Forestal - Mineral - Industrial and Commercial - Education - Colonization - Taxation - Rates and freights - Suggestions - Conclusion Page 293 to 311

ENGRAVINGS

3. Map of Sardinia.

39. Nurhags Per das fittas — Per das luiigas and Sepolture dei Giganti.

51. Sarde Idols.

53. Vases Coins Inscriptions and ancient Relics.

55. Sarde Chnrches in the Middle Ages.

77. Sarde Agricultural Implements. 117. Masua and the Mediterranean. 195. Moufflon. 223. Sarde Costumes. 225. Sarde Costumes. 237. Cagliari (City and Port). 253. Village of the Pisan period. 312. Heraldic arms of Sardinia.

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Chapter I

Introduction — Situation — Resume of History — Aborigines — Libyans — Iberians — Trojans — Canaanites — Phoenicians — Carthaginians — Romans — Vandals — Saracens — Pisans — Genoese — Giudici — Spain — Austria — Savoy — and Italy.

Sardinia is almost a " Terra incognita „ and yet it is easily accessible, within a few hours' sail of Italy and a few days' journey of our own shores, and from its old historic associations, the grandeur of its scenery, the primitive character of its people, the number and variety of its antiquarian remains — dating back to remotest ages — and the speciality ot its sporting attractions, it is well worthy the travellers' attention, and would amply repay a visit.

In order to give a general idea of the country, whose resources and customs are to form the subject of this volume, an introductory description of its situation, physical aspects, and climatic conditions, prefaced by a brief sketch of its history and institutions, has been thought' desirable.

Sardinia is situated between 38° 52' and 41° 17' north latitude and between 8° 10" and 9° 50" longitude east of Greenwich, and is 160 miles long, with an average breadth of 70 miles. Its superficial area is estimated at 10,000 square miles. It lies west oif the mainland of Italy, at a distance of 100 miles, and, according to

Herodotus, Polybius, Pausania? and most ancient Historians, is the largest Island in the Mediterranean, though Strabo, Diodorus Siculus and others make it rather less than Sicily; but, as there is no official survey of either island, their relative sizes are conjectural and approximate.

Sardinia has had a checkered and troubled history extending over many hundreds of centuries, and, though it has held no prominent position in the annals of the World, it has been the object of perpetual intrigue and conquest, by many eastern and many western nations, from the earliest ages until the date of its acquisition by the Royal House of Savoy in the beginning of the last century.

It is to be regretted that Sardinia has had no native historian; there are several elaborate historical treatises and learned v^orks in French and Italian, from which, by the hand of a Macaulay a highly interesting volume might be penned; this I have neither the pretensions nor the time to attempt, but I have gleaned some particulars, which will serve to give a general idea of its history and of the various vicissitudes through which it has passed.

The original name of Sardinia was Ichnusa, from its fancied resemblance to a " Footstep „ and hence some ancient authorities have concluded that the first inhabitants were of Grecian extraction. There is, however, no confirmatory proof of this, and Pausanias and Diodorus Siculus (two of the most accurate of the old historians) concur, that the Libyans, under the leadership of Sardus, the son of Maceris — generally known as the " Theban Hercules „ first colonized the Island, and gave it the name of Sardinia; and that this was the generally received opinion among the ancient Romans may be inferred from the fact that the first coins, struck and circulated during their occupation of the Island, had upon them the image and superscription of " Sardus Pater „. No date can be assigned to this Libyan immigration, but it must have occurred at least two thousand years before the Christian era. Anterior however to this period, the Island was undoubtedly inhabited by an aboriginal population, as evidenced ])y the many ancient monuments and other archaeological remains existing at the present day, which are peculiar to Sardinia, and are not found in any of the countries from which any of the earliest or subsequent colonists are supposed to have come, or to which others of their nation migrated.

The next arrivals in the Island according to some authors were a colony from Ceos, led by Aristenus their King, and accompanied by Daedalus, who joined them as they passed Sicily. They established themselves at Karalis (now called Cagliari, and the present capital of the island) but according to Pausanias, the first seat of Government was " Nora „ (not now existing) built by the Iberians, who succeeded the Libyans, while other ancient writers give precedence to the town of Olbia, (now in ruins, but formerly the residence of Cicero's brother, when he was Consul in Sardinia) which they record was built by the colony of lolaus, the nephew of Hercules. According to the same writers, after these Libyans and Iberians (whatever their order of precedence), came a colony of Trojans, who formed part of the convoy of jEneas, but, having separated from the rest of the fleet, landed in the island and settled there. It is narrated too that, about this period, the Libyans again invaded the Island " furiously „^ and devastated the country; and this is the first mention of the hard fighting and fearful struggles, which, soon after these times, began to form an almost uninterrupted record in Sardinian history.

The Island may however be said to be first historically known when colonized by the Phoenicians about 3500 years ago, though before that period there is strong ground for belief that some of the Canaanitish race, when expelled by the Israelites from " beyond Jordan y, migrated to this Country ; for many of the " Sarde Idols „ that have been found in considerable numbers, are objects of Canaanitish worship, such as images of Moloch, Baal, and Astaroth, so frequently and emphatically denounced in the Old Testament.

The Phoenicians also left many unquestionable vestiges of their occupation behind them, in the shape of ruined Temples, urns, vases.

coins and images, which, from their variety and number, and from the fact of their being found in several districts of the island, would seem to demonstrate a somewhat lengthened possession ; but there is no authentic record as to this, and indeed, at this period, a long interregnum, with no dates and no facts, occurs, and the next mention of the island is an attack upon it by the Carthaginians in the year B. C. 528. The Corsicans (of whom we then hear tor the first tira.e) came to the aid of the Sardes, and the Carthaginians were repulsed. Some years afterwards, in the days of Darius, King of Persia, another invasion was made under the command of Hasdrubal. It also was repulsed and the commander seriously wounded ; but, not daunted by these reverses, the Carthaginians, B. C. 512, made another invasion, and taking the people by surprise, obtained possession of the island after great slaughter. The Corsicans retired to their homes, and the lolese to the mountains, and from the latter, it is asserted, sprung the race of brigands which have infested the Island ever since until v«ry recent times.

The Carthaginians in their treatment of the Sardinians exercised great cruelties, devastated their cornfields, destroyed their vineyards, and persecuted the infortunate people so grievously, during the whole period of the two centuries and a half of their occupation, that, when the Romans invaded the Island, they were welcomed as friends and liberators.

The first Roman expedition was in B. C. 259; it was led by Cornelius Scipio, who gained a signal victory over the Carthaginians, and in the year following another expedition, led by Sulpicius Paterculus, was again victorious.

The Romans at this time do not appear to have had any intention of permanently acquiring Sardinia; their object was, to vanquish the Carthaginians, in which they signally succeeded; but after the 1.^' Punic War, when the mercenary soldiers of the Carthaginians revolted, and came over to the Roman standard, the idea of annexing the Island first presented itself. The Sardes however, after the terrible experience they had had of the Carthaginians, were not willing to place themselves under another yoke : and determined to fight for their independence. An expedition under Titus Manlius Torquatus was despatched from Rome and gained a great victory, but the Sardes would not yield; two other expeditions followed, both of which were successful, and a temporary submission was the result.

In B. C. 227 a Roman Praetor (Marcus Valerius) was for the first time sent to Sardinia, but the Sardes soon broke out into revolt, and the Carthaginians sent a large army under Hasdrubal to assist them. The combined forces were, however, ignominiously routed by the Romans, and twelve thousand of the Sardes (including their chief Hiostus) were killed, and Hasdrubal, with 3200 other prisoners, was carried to Rome, and paraded in triumph. From this time there was a short interval of rest under the Roman rule, but in the next century the Sardes were once more in rebellion, and, assisted by the Baleares and by the lolese, who came down from the mountains, they fought a great battle with the Romans, and were again defeated. Tiberius Sempronius Grracchus, who was in command, exacted a double tribute and took away above two hundred of the upper classes as hostages for future obedience.

During fifty years there was again comparative peace in the island, but in B. C. 114 it was broken by another revolt, which was quelled by Caecilius Metellus.

Caesar, on his return from his African conquests, B. C. 56, visited Sardinia, landing at the old town of Sulcis on the west Coast; and, having heard there that the inhabitants had harboured the fleet of Nasidius, (Pompey's admiral) he confiscated one half of the goods of the people^ and exacted a penalty of 100,000 sesterces, and raised the annual tribute from one tenth to one eighth of the produce. Tribute was at this time paid in kind, Sicily and Sardinia paying it in corn, and Corsica in wax.

Shortly after this period, when Tiberius was Emperor, Corsica was separated from Sardinia and made into a distinct Province with its own Praetor; at this period too, Sardinia was first used as a place of exile; Tiberius, A. D. 19, having banished four thousand Jews there;

whose descendants remained in the Island for nearly 15 centuries until they were expelled by the Spaniards in A. D. 1492. From the time of Tiberius, for the unusually long period of nearly three hundred years there was again an interval of peace, and during this epoch the Island is said to have attained a height of civilization and prosperity that it has never since reached.

On tlie decline of the Roman Empire, Sardinia once more became the subject of periodical conflicts. In A. D. 318 it was, with Sicily and Corsica, taken by Constantine and annexed to Africa; and in the next century we find it under the dominion of Genseric, King of the Vandals ; it is then over-run by the Goths and the Saracens, who pillaged the Churches, tombs, towns and monuments, destroyed the Aqueducts, roads and public works, and committed every other variety of wanton atrocity and destruction. This miserable condition of afiFairs was protracted till A. D. 774 when the victorious Charlemagne took Sardinia, and placed it under the nominal sovereignty of the Pope. This gift was confirmed by his successor Louis le Debonnaire, and had a most important influence over the future destinies of the country.

The people, however, continued to be subjected to perpetual invasions from the Moors, and the Pope (John XVIII) pitying their wretched state, and seeing his own inability to relieve them, preached a crusade against the Infidels, and promised possession of the Island to whomsoever should expel them.

The Pisans, who had at that time become a powerful Republic on the mainland, accepted the challenge, and were subsequently joined by the Genoese; and, in A. D. 1002, after many sieges and battles and great loss of life, the Moors were expelled and the victors entered into possession. They were not however allowed to remain long in quiet enjoyment, for though they increased the defences, and divided the Kingdom into four Governments, each presided over by a chief of their own nomination, yet, after a lapse of less than fifty years, the Island was again attacked by the Saracens who defeated the combined armies of Pisans and Sardes, and in A. D. 1050 established themselves at Cagliari, under Musset their King.

The Pisans, though defeated, were not disheartened, and the next year another fleet and army were raised; Cagliari was retaken, the Moors were expelled and Musset taken prisoner. The quadruple Government was at once reestablished, the four Provinces being named Cagliari, Luoguodoro, Gallura and Arborea, and their Governors (called Giudici) to whom were entrusted supreme powers iii their own provinces, were greatly strengthened in their position and influence by marriages with several titled heads on the Continent; the daughter of one of the Giudici being married to the natural son of the Emperor Ferdinand.

This comparatively settled state of things continued for over two hundred years, during the whole of which period the Saracens were periodically harassing the Island by hostile incursions, and the Pisans and Genoese intriguing to expel each other. Towards the close of the 13'^ century the Papal See having cpiarrelled with the Pisans, transfered the sovereignty of Sardinia (for the Pope still retained the right conferred by Charlemagne to dispose of the Island as he thought fit) to the Crown of Arragon, and in A.D. 1324 the Arragonese under Alphonso IV*^ landed at the Gulf of Palmas with a large force, took the town of Iglesias, and marched to Cagliari. Many of the nobles, including the Malespinas, the Dorias, and others, joined the invading army, and, after a hard battle with the Pisans, Cagliari was taken. The nobles however soon became dissatisfied with the new Government and, headed by the Dorias, they joined the Pisans and the Giudici, and obtained dominion over the island. The successor to Alfonso was not content to let the kingdom thus slip from him, and in A. D. 1366 he landed with a large array, gained a complete victory over the Pisans, dethroned the Giudici, and resumed sovereign possession of the Country.

The nobles in their tarn once more became restless and discontented, and, headed by the Dorias, they united with tlie Giudici, surprised the Arragonese, drove thera out of the Island, and re-established the former regime.

About this time (A. D. 1376) the plague visited the island, and carried off, it is said, more than one half of the whole population. Among the victims was Marian, the Giudice of Arborea (by far the most powerful of the four Governments), a man thoroughly detested by the people, and whose son, equally detested, was killed by his own soldiers. Marian was succeeded by his sister Eleonora, a most enlightened and brave Princess, to whom the Sardinians are indebted for some of the best of their existing laws and institutions, and who, leading her armies in person, gained many glorious victories, and reigned, universally beloved, for over a quarter of a Century, until she too fell a victim to the plague, when it revisited the Island A. D. 1403. This Princess was married to one of the Dorias, and their son succeeded ; but her husband (who for plotting against the Government had been put into prison and escaped) joined the Arragonese, and they in A. D. 1416 again attacked, and reconquered the island, which with Sicily was then annexed to Arragon and upon Ferdinand's marriage with Isabella came under the dominion of Spain.

Upon Ferdinand's death, Sardinia became part of the possessions of Charles V.*^ of Austria, and this illustrious Monarch, in the midst of all the other numerous avocation that occupied his time and attention, did not altogether neglect Sardinia. In A. D. 1535 he made a personal visit to the Island, when on his way to Africa, and stayed for several days at Alghero, where his house now stands almost in the same ,state as when he resided there nearly four centuries ago. On the abdication of Charles (A. D. 1553) Sardinia reverted to Spain, and it was during this period of Spanish dominion under Philip II, that many of the defences and most of the fortified ca.stles were built. These however did not prove a successful barrier against hostile invasions, for when the war of succession broke out, and Sardinia was besieged by the Archduke Charles, Cagliari in the .South and Porto-Torres in the North were taken; and while thus contending with a foreign power, the unhappy Sardes were engaged in a civil war amongst themselves and with their rulers, and the most fearful atrocities were being committed on both sides.

This troubled state of internal and external affairs fortunately lasted only for a few years, and was put an end to by the Treaty of Utrecht A. D. 1714, when. Sardinia was, by the unanimous assent of all the powers, declared part of the dominions of Austria. It might not now have been unreasonably concluded, that this distracted Island would at last have enjoyed some repose, but three years had scarcely elapsed when Spain, in flagrant and direct violation of the Treaty and to the indignation of Europe, recommenced hostilities and Sardinia was of course selected as the object of attack. This audacious act however, was promptly resented ; an Austrian expedition, under the Marquis de Leyden, was at once despatched, and without either losses or difficulties, expelled the Spaniards and resumed possession.

In the following year, A. D. 1720, the treaty of London was concluded, by which Sardinia was ceded to Victor Amadeus IV, who, on the same day, transferred Sicily to Austria in exchange for it, assumed the title of King of Sardinia, and from that time to the present, the Island has continued in the uninterrupted possession of the House of Savoy. Its troubles however were not yet ended. The destinies of its new Rulers, in their various vicissitudes of fortune, were shared by Sardinia, who stood loyal and faithful through them all, and the Sardes may well look back with proud satisfaction upon this last aera of their most eventful History.

During the Spanish and Austrian dominion in the Island very little was done or attempted for the benefit of the people, or the improvement of the Country, but Carlo Emanuel e II on his accession began at once to interest himself in its internal administration, and general amelioration, and the Island again entered upon a period of quietness and prosperity ; but it was not destined long s6 to continue, for when the French Revolution broke out, A. D. 1790 an invasion of Sardinia by the new Republic was threatened. The Court ot Turin was at that time anxiously and fully occupied in the defence of its continental possessions, and was unable to send any reinforcements or render any assistance; and the Island had to be left to its own resources. The Sardes however proved equal to the occasion, and not only stood loyal to their King, but armed themselves for defence at all points; and, when the French Admiral arrived with a powerful fleet, though he effected a successful landing at San Pietro, San Antioco and other places, yet he obtaind no permanent footing ia the Country ; and, finding that the feeling in the Island was decidedly hostile, instead of favorable as he had been led to expect, he retired, but not without heavy losses both in men and boats.

After this most signal success, the Sardes were invited to Turin to receive congratulations and favours ; all they asked was the re-establishraent of their old parliamentary istitutions, and this was promised ; but unfortunately, owing to court intrigues and quarrels, the promise was not fulfilled, and a revolt ensued. The Viceroy and other officials were expelled from the Island, and when another Viceroy was appointed, and, accompanied by the Marquis de la Planargia, (who was one of the oldest Sarde nobles, and who had just been appointed Commander-in-chief) arrived in the Island they were sacrificed to the fury of the people.

This act of open rebellion could not of course pass unpunished, and another period of war and disaster would no doubt have commenced, had it not been for the direct intervention of the Pope, who, by earnest mediation and entreaty, brought about peace betwen the King and his subjects. From this time order and quiet again reigned in the Island till A. D. 1796 when the Savoy dominions on the main land were invaded by the French, and the King, (Carlo Emmanuele IV had then succeeded to the throne) and Royal family were obliged to leave Turin. By an almost providential coincidence, when they had reached Leghorn, they were met by a deputation of Sardes, which had been specially de^rpatched by the Sardinian Parliament, to express their practical sympathy and allegiance by offering to the Royal family a home in Sardinia during their troubles, with all the assurances of security and defence which the island and the loyalty of its people could give. The otter was graciously and gratefully accepted, and the King with the Royal household, accompanied by the Deputies, and under the escort of a British frigate, at once set sail for Sardinia, and on the S^^ of May 1799 landed at Cagliari amidst " transports of affection and unequivocal joy „.