Public school physiology and temperance

Preface

In preparing this text-book, much difficulty was experienced in dealing with a subject of a somewhat technical character without using too freely the technical terms incident to Anatomy and Physiology. The practice of the authors of the best text-books published has, however, been followed. The introduction of a limited number of the simpler scientific names, while partly a necessity, nevertheless affords an opportunity for pupils to become early acquainted with the various parts of the human frame under names which are more correct and more suitable than many of the familiar terms in common use ; besides, experience shows it is impossible to fix in the memory a knowledge of any subject, except by the use of its own appropriate nomenclature.

The object of the author has been to put clearly before the teachers and pupils the leading facts concerning the structure and functions of the various organs of the body, and, at the same time, to associate with these facts the physiological action and effects of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics. The pupil is, in this way, at every turn confronted with the evil effects of alcohol and tobacco, the dangers accompanying their use, and the tremendous risk of tampering with such powerful agents of destruction.

IV

PREFACE.

The benefits to be derived from a proper observance of the laws of health cannot be over-estimated, and while teachers inculcate abstinence from stimulants, they should impress upon their pupils the observance of such practices with regard to all the functions as would promote the highest possible development of mind and body.

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the follow ing for valuable hints : Martin’s “ Human Body,” Starling’s “Human Physiology,” Blaisdell’s “Young Folks’ Physiology,” Steele’s “ Hygienic Physiology,” “ Manual of Hygiene,” Toronto, Sir B. W. Bichardson’s “ Cantor Lectures on Alcohol,” besides frequent reference to Gray, Foster, Huxley, Hare, Sajous, Nettleship, Lees, and many others.

WILLIAM NATTRESS.

Toronto, October , 1893.

Chapter I. Page

Introductory : The Skeleton— How it is built up .... 9

Chapter II

The Bones : The Number of Bones — Uses — Composition — Structure — Growth and Repair — Skull — Trunk — Upper Extremities — Lower Extremities — Joints — Care of the Body — Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco 15

Chapter III

The Muscles : The Structure of Muscles— Arrangement— Classification— Tendons — Care of Muscles — Action of Alcohol and Tobacco on Muscular Sense 39

Chapter IV

The Skin : The Epidermis — True Skin — Glands of the Skin — The Hair — Nails — Care of the Skin — Bathing — Skin Affections — Effects of Alcohol 48

Chapter V

Digestion: Need for Food — Mouth — Teeth — Salivary Glands — Pharynx — CEsophagus — Stomach — Intestines — Pancreas — Liver — Kinds of 'Food — Action of the Ferments — Appetite — Natural and Prepared Drinks — Action of Alcohol on the Stomach — On the Liver — Effect of Tobacco on Digestion . . 58

Chapter VI

Circulation : The Blood — The Heart — Arteries — Veins — How Blood is Made to Flow — Effects of Alcohol on the Heart —

On the Blood-vessels— Effects of Tobacco on the Heart.

VI

CONTENTS.

Chapter VII

Respiration : Why we Breathe — The Lungs — The Voice — The Pleura — The Act of Breathing — Change of Elements in the Lungs — Effects of Impure Air— Ventilation— How Heat is kept up — Need of Clothing — Effects of Alcohol on Respiration— Cigarette Smoking

Chapter VIII

The Nervous System : The Brain — Gray and White Matter — Cerebrum— Cerebellum — Medulla Oblongata — The Spinal Cord — Nerves — Sympathetic System — Growth and Development of Brain — Rest and Sleep — Abuse of Narcotics — Effects of Alcohol on the Brain — On the Nervous System — Tobacco

Chapter IX

The Special Senses : Taste — Smell — Sight— Hearing — Touch — Relation of Special Senses — Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Special Senses

Chapter X

First Aids to the Sick and Injured: Bandages— Splints— Poultices— Haemorrhage — Cuts — Bites of Animals — Burns and Scalds — Frost-bite — Broken Bones — Dislocations — Sprains — Insensible Conditions — Intoxication — Drowning — Suffocation by Gas — Foreign Bodies in the Eye, Ear, etc. — Poisons

Chapter XI

How to Prevent Disease: Preventable Diseases — Infectious and Contagious Diseases — Means of Invading the Human System — Antiseptics and Disinfectants — The Sick Room — Stimulants in the Sick Room

Chapter XII

Physical Exercise: The Benefits of Exercise — Kind of Exercise — Regulation of Exercise — Time for Exercise — Necessity for Exercise— Gymnastic Training — Free Gymnastics ....

Appendix I. — Regulations of the Education Department respecting the Study of Physiology and Temperance

Appendix II. — Quotations from the License Act with respect to Minors

Appendix III. — An Act respecting the Use of Tobacco by Minors

PAGE

Fiq. 1.— the skeleton.

PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.

Chapter I. Introductory

1. The Skeleton. — Man is the noblest being God has made to inhabit this earth. Let us examine the human body. First, notice the framework. It is not comely nor attractive, and even appears ill-adapted to form the framework of a living being, with high and noble purposes, capable of great attainments. Yet every bone is a model of wisdom and perfection, adapted to a specific object. The whole skeleton, so irregular in outline and so unattractive to look at, is built and fashioned with a degree of wisdom which taxes the mind to comprehend. Every prominence, every depression, every line, every curve, has a special purpose.

2. The Joints. — This framework is a movable structure, and, to permit of motion, is supplied with a certain number and variety of joints, by which the limbs may be moved in various directions and the whole body from place to place. The utility and the wise construction of these joints will be pointed out in another place.

3. The Muscles. — The power by which the joints are moved is provided by the muscles, which in a great measure form the bulk of the limbs and body generally. The muscles, stretching from point to point, are attached to the bones by tendons of a fine cord-like nature, and, by a power which

PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.

they have of contracting and relaxing, produce motion of the joints. They act upon the principle of the levers — one or other of the three kinds. In the attachment of the muscles we see the admirable purpose which the various prominences and depressions upon the bones are intended to serve.

4. Fascia. — The muscles are invested and bound down by a fine, thin membrane, called fascia , which protects and keeps them in place.

5. The Nerves. — The muscles are moved and controlled through the nerves supplied to them. The nerves form the connecting links between the muscles at one end and the brain and spinal cord, or marrow, at the other. The brain and spinal cord may be called the headquarters of the nervous system. Nerve cords of various sizes extend from the headquarters to the numerous muscles of the body, where they divide and ramify. Each nerve is like a telegraph wire, along which are conveyed communications from the nerve centres to every part of the muscular system. Orders may be transmitted from the brain to a muscle, when it is to move, how it is to move, and when it is to cease moving. All muscles employed in moving the body are under the control of the will of the individual.

6. Fat. — Outside the muscles, and often filling in the inequality of surface, there is, during the greater part of life, a layer of adipose tissue or fat. This serves very important purposes in the physical economy, and forms a valuable covering and cushion to the parts beneath. It also gives beauty to the figure, by producing graceful form of limb and body. The fat is contained in the cells of a structure known as cellular tissue , which serves also as a connective tissue between parts.

7. The Skin. — The human body thus built up is covered by the skin. The skin not only forms a protective covering to the parts beneath, but, being possessed of nervous sensi-

INTRODUCTORY.

bility, it indicates to the system the state of the atmosphere and other surrounding conditions, and gives warning of destructive influences. In some parts, as in the fingers, this sensibility is most delicate and acute. Here the nerves of sense are more closely distributed, and are in freer communication with each other. They act as sentinels to warn the body of danger, and when danger is at hand they telegraph to the brain or spinal cord to move the limb or body from this exposed position, or to assume a position of defence. The lightning speed with which these communications are made may be seen when a finger unexpectedly comes in contact with a hot substance.

8. The Brain and Spinal Cord. — We have now before us a self-moving structure, made up of bones, ligaments to hold together the bones at the joints, muscles, fat, connective tissue and skin, with a nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal marrow, and nerves communicating wdth every part, to superintend and manage this movable tenement. The force required to move the system and the heat necessary for life are self-created.

9. Atoms. — The body formed of these several tissues is composed of material of limited durability. There is a limit to life with regard to our individual being, but there is a much briefer limit to the life of the particles out of which the tissues are constructed. Each of these atoms or cells has an individual life. It passes a state of existence of comparatively short duration. During its term of existence it has the ordinary stages of life — birth, growth, development, maturity, decline and death. The cells are the offspring of parent cells, and in turn beget offspring before they die. In infancy, childhood, maturity and old age the body is ever perishing. It is this constant loss of particles, this wear and tear of tissue, which causes the demand for daily food. Until the body is fully matured, food is required for the growth of

PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.

the tissue; subsequently it is only needed to maintain the body, to make repairs and to supply heat. The human body may be likened to a building, composed of many parts, of different forms, size, density and durability. Together they constitute a perfect structure, harmonious in every part. But one or more of these pieces decay, and to retain the integrity of the structure, repair is made by substituting a sound piece for the one decayed or worn out. Thus repair of a building may be effected by a competent builder, even to replacing the foundation stone. In this manner repair is constantly taking place in the living body. It is a work of nature, and is carried on by wdse laws and with unerring precision.

10. Digestion. — The source of supply for repairing the tissues of the body is the food which we eat. To convert the food into blood, the body is provided wdth the digestive system , consisting of the mouth, teeth, tongue, oesophagus or gullet, stomach, and the intestines. Each of these organs is placed in a position most convenient to serve its purposes. In connection with the digestive system are a number of glands, to secrete fluids required in the process of digestion. First, the salivary glands, which discharge the saliva into the mouth, to be mixed with the food as it is ground up by the teeth. After this first step in the process of digestion, the food passes along the gullet to the stomach, where it is churned up, and at the game time mixed with the gastric juice, secreted by glands placed in the coats of the stomach. The greyish pulpy mass thus produced, called chyme , passes into the intestines, to undergo further changes from the action of the intestinal juice, the bile from the liver and the fluid secreted by the pancreas. The chemical and vital changes which have now taken place have prepared the aliment to mix with the blood, and the chyle, as it is now called, is taken up by a system of absorbent vessels and passes by a duct called the thoracic duct, to be emptied into the great volume of blood

INTRODUCTORY.

circulating through the system. The nutritious fluid thus added to the blood is gradually developed, and has imparted to it the vital properties of the blood, and in due time is in a fit state to become food for the tissues or to repair the loss caused by the death of microscopical cells.

11. The Circulatory System. — This system carries the blood back and forth from the heart to every part of the body. It consists of the heart , arteries and veins , and hair-like canals called capillaries. A second circulatory system carries the blood to and from the lungs to the heart. The first, or long circuit, is to feed the tissues and remove the worn-out material ; the second, or short circuit, through the lungs, is to cast out of the system the products of decay and death of tissue, and to receive from the air taken into the lungs the oxygen without which life cannot exist.

12. The Respiratory System. — More immediately necessary for life than the circulation is the process of breathing, and the two lungs, which in the lower animals are called the lights , occupy a large space in the upper part of the body, called the thorax. The bronchial tubes, which extend from the trachea , or windpipe, to the inner surfaces of the lungs, communicate with the external air through the nose.

13. The Excretory System. — Besides the lungs, there are other organs, whose function it is to carry out of the system various elements not only useless to sustain the body, but more or less injurious to the process of life. These are the intestines, the kidneys , and the skin.

14. Alcohol, Tobacco, etc. — This brief survey of the human body, and the manner in which the functions of life are carried on, will prepare us to consider more particularly the structure of the various tissues and organs ; how they are nourished and sustained, and what are the requirements to keep the body in health. We will endeavor to show that perfect health depends upon the care we give the body, the

PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.

regularity with which we attend to its many needs, and the judgment we exercise in taking into the system only that which is pure and wholesome, and avoiding those things which tend to irritate, to injure and to destroy.

One of the most destructive agents man has brought into use is alcohol. Owing to its use as a beverage, it has become a powerful evil. Taken into the system regularly, it becomes an overpowering enemy. Alcohol may be presented in many different forms. There are a large number of intoxicating beverages, each of which is supposed to possess some special virtue. They are all alike seductive, and are taken for the alcohol they contain, Some have only a small amount of alcohol in them, and are classed as mild drinks. Others are nearly one-half alcohol, and are called strong drinks . No matter in what form it is taken, we will find in the succeeding chapters of this book, that every tissue and every organ of the body is influenced by its use. We are also convinced that further evidence will not be needed to show that perfect health cannot be hoped for when alcohol is taken in ever so small a quantity.

Tobacco, though “the lesser evil of the two,” is, perhaps, more universally used than alcohol ; and is, doubtless, responsible for many a headache, a deranged stomach, a weak heart, or a stunted body. Like alcohol, it is also presented in many different forms. Some draw it into the nose, as snuff ; others take it into the mouth, to chew; while others, again, smoke it, either in the form of a cigarette, a cigar, or in a pipe. Taken in any form, it is more or less distasteful to those about us who do not use it, while some of the modes of taking tobacco deserve strong condemnation.

The evil effects of opium are not to be less dreaded than those of alcohol. We shall find that, while it is a useful drug in the hands of a careful physician, it is too powerful a one to be used indifferently. The opium eater is as much to be pitied as the drunkard.

THE BONES.