Psychology for religious and social workers

Front matter

LIBRARY

Brigham Young University

M.

Preface

This book is designed to meet a need which has long been neglected. There is an abundance of texts in general psychology and in applications of psychology to business and education, but very few which deal specifically with religious work or general social service. Such books or articles as exist are scattering, and deal with specific aspects of the general field.

It is hoped that the text will meet the needs of theological seminaries, schools of religion, and schools of social work, as a basic text in psychology; that it may be used in reading circles, special study courses, and institutes; and also be a valuable addition to private libraries.

It was deemed advisable to deal with a general survey of psychology in the first part of the book. Provision is thus made for those who wish to cover the field of general and applied psychology in one text. The special needs of the religious and social worker are kept in mind throughout, and illustrations and suggested applications in these fields are presented. There are many who will desire to review the study of psychology with a view to refreshing their memory of the subject and getting up-to-date knowledge in this field.

No extreme school of psychology is represented by the authors. Their point of view may be regarded as integrative, in the sense that the most worth-while, scientific, and sensible aspects of all schools are accepted. The biological emphasis is essential and inevitable if one would lay a proper foundation of knowledge and attitude. The practical value of the science of psychology as a means of social and individual control is constantly kept in mind.

vill viii PREFACE No attempt has been made to produce a book for popular reading, with a superficial treatment of topics. On the contrary, the text is planned for intensive study. To this end, as an aid to both teacher and student, a number of questions and exercises are appended to each chapter. These consist, for the most part, of extensions of thoughts and applications of the material in the chapter, rather than questions which merely review the content. In addition, a list of selected references is given at the end of each chapter as an aid to the reader who desires to continue his study upon any topic. The authors do not hold to all the views represented in these readings, but believe that the one who would be well informed should be cognizant of the many opinions and points of view which obtain.

No particular religious philosophy or system of religious thought is here represented. It is believed that the text can have its greatest usefulness through an impartial presentation, each religious group or individual making such applications and interpretations within his own field as are deemed necessary or advisable.

The purpose of the authors will be achieved if those who read and study the text find their interest in social and religious work intensified and their work made more efficient. An intelligent mastery of psychology is essential for all who have the task of modifying the behavior of others, and the text should contribute to such a mastery. The values to be obtained through social and religious work in society are too critical to be left to chance, and the responsibilities of those who engage in these activities should be fully matched by wise ability. It is suggested that the book be not merely studied and then laid aside, but that it should be used as a working manual and center of reference, and constant effort be made to translate the fundamental principles into functional activity.

Acknowledgment is due to Ginn and Company for per-

PREFACE ix mission to use the diagrams of Mendel’s law of segregation and the normal frequency curve from Psychology for Teachers by Benson, Lough, Skinner, and West.

PauL V. WEsT.

Cuar_es E. SKINNER.

New York, N. Y.

December 15, 1929

CHAPTER Th.

II. Alii

PsycHOLOGY RELATED TO FIELDS AND ToPIcs

CONTENTS PART I

BASAL STRUCTURE OF THE NEURAL,

AND GLANDULAR SYSTEMS . .

THE SENSES AND SENSE ORGANS.

REACTION AND TYPES OF BEHAVIOR

MUSCULAR,

° ° e e

THE STRUCTURE AND PROCESS OF ASSOCIATION

HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT .

ABET AND LEARNING |: oiyiiis, o.oe urs INSTINCTIVE TENDENCIES . .

FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS .. .

MEMORY AND IMAGINATION ...

PAR TAU

INTEREST

ATTITUDES, IDEALS, AND PREJUDICES IMITATION AND INITIATIVE : ° VOLITION AND PERSONALITY ° ° APPEALS AND MOTIVATION . ° .

CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE .

PAGE

203 220 234

249 265 xi CHAPTER XIX. xX.

XXI.

XXII.

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL HYGIENE SOCIAL GROUPS AND INSTITUTIONS PSYCHOLOGY OF LEADERSHIP THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELIGIONS AND MORALS

Part III Applications Of Psychology In Social And Religious

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVIII.

XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX.

XXXI.

WorK

RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE .

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CHARACTER FORMATION

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION .

PERSONNEL WORK AND GUIDANCE PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIAL SERVICE SOCIAL CONTROL AND REFORM ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION e

FIGURES

FIGURE

I.

Ss ee oe

OPS

Io.

THE PARENT CELL ° Em ° ° ° THE NEURONE AND ITS PARTS . . ° THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD . ° .

A CROSS-SECTION VIEW OF THE EYE .

CONVERGENCE AND DIFFUSION OF NERVE IMPULSES

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE NERVOUS SYS- TEM REGARDED AS MADE UP OF THREE LEVELS

SENSORI-MOTOR ARCS . ° . ° °

INFLUENCES WHICH DETERMINE BEHAVIOR

MENDEL’S LAW OF SEGREGATION gy Cig MEAP ING CURVES lie bie) ec seg NORMAL FREQUENCY CURVE eRe ORE

OF e e e e

HISTOGRAM ILLUSTRATING A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS IN A RANDOM SAM-

PLING OF POPULATION ON Sees xili

PAGE

PArtT f

Peeve R Al INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

My mind to me a kingdom is; such present joys therein I find, that it excels all other bliss that earth affords. CHAUCER

#3 fo wt

CHAPTER I PSYCHOLOGY—ITS NATURE AND FUNCTION The proper study of mankind is Man

ALEXANDER POPE

DEFINITION.—Psychology is the systematic study of behavior. Unless otherwise designated, psychology refers to the study of normal human beings. The term “behavior” is here used in its widest sense. It includes everything from the simplest acts to the most complex thoughts, involved feelings, and intricate skills. In a very real sense psychology is akin to physiology which is concerned with the organic functions of the body, but differs in that it specializes on those functions which are related in some way to mental life. Psychology thus treats of emotions, cravings, abilities, ideas, learning, attitudes, ideals, choices, and many other types of behavior.

INTEREST IN PsycHoLocy.—Everyone is interested in the behavior of others. This interest gives a key to the appeal made by fiction and drama. Sympathy with one’s fellows is achieved through an understanding of their behavior in the light of one’s own experiences. Contact with others constantly requires that one’s own behavior shall be related and adjusted to the behavior of others. The majority of individuals are curious regarding psychology because they wish to, know how the mind operates, how to increase their own mental efficiency, and how to realize the maxium development of personality. The practical end determines this interest. As one becomes better acquainted with the field of study and makes some practical use of psychological principles, his interest in the subject for its own sake increases.

VALUE OF PsycHoLocy.—A knowledge of the facts of psychology, when properly grasped and applied, assists in predicting and controlling the behavior of oneself and of others. A working knowledge of this science enables one to understand himself better. It gives one a conscious control of his own thoughts, feelings, and actions in relation to himself and others. It also helps one to produce desired social changes in the most economical way through proper stimulation, restriction, and direction of individual activities.

ILLUSTRATION OF TyPicaL BEHAvior.—A typical case of human behavior of a complex sort is given in the following incident :

John Rodger, registrar, found it difficult to keep his attention on the task of writing his report. More and more effort was required. The thought kept recurring to him that he should ask for an increase in salary. Many reasons for this move suggested themselves: he had received commendation for his efficient work; others less deserving than he had been promoted; the college finances were in good shape; the board of trustees appeared willing to pay higher salaries.

On the other hand, he recollected the brusque manner of the president and remembered how he had been rebuffed on a previous occasion when he had made a similar request. He confessed to himself an emotion of fear whenever he came into this august person’s presence. In his imagination he saw what might happen should he face the president with his petition, and this picture was enough. He decided he would postpone his action on the matter and resumed his writing with new energy.

Just at this moment he heard the noon whistle and, glancing at the clock, he saw that the hands stood at twelve. He suddenly became aware of the odor of food from the neighboring cafeteria and realized that he was keenly hungry. He arose and, following his habit, automatically cleared his desk and locked it; then imitated his fellow-employees in sauntering casually into the lunch room.

In this episode one finds many kinds of behavior noted. Some of these are indicated by italics. Mr. Rodgers is busy in other ways than those which pertain to his duties. He is carrying on a line of thought which leads to evaluating reasons pro and con and the making of important decisions. Feeling plays a large part in these decisions. He is aware of his own line of thought and his feelings as well as certain things in his surroundings. In certain cases he acts with deliberation ; in other instances his action takes place without his conscious direction.

MetTHops OF SECURING PsycHoLocicaL Data.—All facts regarding behavior are secured through observation. Certain elements of behavior are ob jective, in the sense that they can be observed by others. Actual physical movements fall in this class. If one were observing the behavior of Mr. Rodger one could easily observe that he wrote, glanced at the clock, arose, cleared and locked his desk, and walked into the lunch room. Certain aspects of his behavior could not be directly observed, although they might be inferred from a careful observation of related details. Thus one might note the slowing down of his rate of writing and the puzzled expression on his face, and conclude that he is thinking through some worrisome problem. From the way in which he resumes work one might infer that he had reached a decision. The glance at the clock just after the whistle had sounded would indicate that he had heard the whistle. Such inferences are not certain, nor do they convey any information as to the exact content of the mental life at the time.

Many elements of behavior are not observable by others. The thoughts, reasons, memories, fears, imaginations, decisions, and hunger, which Mr. Rodger experienced, are mental states of which only Mr. Rodger himself could be aware. They are subjective states and operations which can be recalled, reported, and analyzed only through introspection (looking within), or selfobservation. Mr. Rodger could thus introspect and tell others in some detail what he thought, felt, and decided during this

period.

While introspection is indispensable in the gathering of psychological data, it has serious limitations. Wrong conclusions are sometimes reached, and disagreements among psychologists often arise because of imperfections in this method.

1. Only those who are carefully trained in the technique of introspection may make use of it with dependable results.

2. Even with experts the process of introspection may interfere with normal mental behavior. If one had not been consciously observing his own mental states it is possible that the entire mental process would have been different.

3. The observer can never tell what is “passing through his mind,” but only what was happening in the near or remote past. This permits the report to be colored by imagination.

4. The method fails to show the relation between past and present forms of behavior. One may infer that what he feels or thinks is traceable to certain past experiences, but this inference may be in error.

5. The method cannot be used accurately with small children or those who are mentally incompetent.

6. The items of the report are not objectively verifiable. What the reporter says about his own mental states must be taken “on faith” if at all, since it is altogether subjective. |

When one’s introspections are told to others the telling is objective. If the data collected evidence an agreement with other observed facts, and if they are substantially the same under similar conditions, they may prove highly significant. The psychologist necessarily interprets the objective behavior of others in terms of his own subjective experiences. Thus, when properly used, the introspective method of observation is a useful complement to the objective method in psychological investigations.

Many problems cannot be solved by casual observation of incidents and conditions as they normally occur. Behavior processes are so complex that the exact series necessary to throw t light on some problem of behavior might never occur within the observer’s experience. Therefore many of the facts of psychology have been derived through a special type of scientific observation called experiment. By this procedure factors are controlled, so that one is allowed to vary while others are held constant. The effects of the variable factor on the behavior of the person or persons who act as subjects can be noted. The exact conditions can be duplicated at another time and the experiment repeated. In this way it is possible to subject the findings to test, and decide on the acceptance or rejection of conclusions previously reached. In brief, the experimental method extends the range of subjective and objective observations, and increases the accuracy and reliability of the observations made.

The meaning of an experiment and the procedure used may be made clear by the following brief digest of a typical report of research in psychology as applied to moral education.*

Problem:

To what an extent will intensive moral training result in an improvement of moral ideals and habits?

Method of Solution:

Boys from ten to fourteen years used as subjects.

These boys organized into six groups with about one dozen in each,

All the boys were given a preliminary test in trustworthiness, being provided with opportunities to steal, cheat, lie, and break promises without being aware that these temptations were prearranged or the results recorded.

The average boy was successfully tempted by three or four of the ten tests given. All but one of the boys were found untrustworthy in some particular.

Two of the groups were left for a period of seven weeks with no special training in morals. This was the “control” or check group. Two of the groups were given ordinary Boy Scout train-

1 Paul Voelker, The Function of Attitudes and Ideals in Education, Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 112, 1921. Also see A. I. Gates, Psychology for Students of Education (The Macmillan Company, New York, 1923), pp. 320-22.

ing. The remaining two groups were given an intensive training in moral attitudes and conduct in a large variety of situations in addition to the Boy Scout training.

A final set of ten tests in trustworthiness was given to all boys at the end of the seven weeks of training. This test was similar to the preliminary test.

Results:

Although not all of the members of the specially trained groups were found to be absolutely trustworthy, their record was greatly improved. Their improvement was markedly greater than that of the middle groups, who in turn excelled those who received no systematic training.

In ordinary life conditions, many observations of behavior, either of self or of others, are of the random type. Others are made with a well-defined purpose. In this case it is the duty of the observer to record his findings in definite terms and measurements, with full descriptions of procedures. At every step there must be complete fidelity to the object in view and to the facts.

FUNCTION oF PsycHoLocy.—The task of psychology is more than just the gathering of data on the various aspects of behavior. Facts must be classified, analyzed, interpreted, and related to each other so that principles and laws may be discovered, © as a guide to prediction of behavior and control of conduct.

All people are constantly making use of many of these principles in their contacts with each other without having any exact idea of the existence of the principles or how they operate. In this sense the newsboy on the street and the merchant in his store may be “psychologists” in their dealings with others. Psychology seeks to make the basic laws known to all and to suggest methods of application, so that they may be used deliberately and intelligently in many varied ways.

It is no part of the task of psychology to deal with the determination of ethical ideals as such. The definition of the rightness and wrongness of specific acts is left to other studies. Metaphysical problems, having to do with the ultimate nature ee ¥ TROP Aw eT) FXTAN r

PERIVAL SE bias 2 mA CITY COTY) ROT IVi. W¥ dass NAL | and origin of phenomena, are also not a subject-matter of psychology, but of philosophy.

NaTuRE oF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE.—In pursuance of its function, psychology must be a highly organized science, or body of proved fact. A science must deal with definite, exact, and objective data. These data must be collected and treated by experts in a precise way and the conclusions which are reached must be subjected to test and proof by others if they are to be accepted as true. As a rule, principles or general laws are arrived « at gradually. The first step in their development is a guess at a solution, or the hypothesis, which appears probable in the light of experience. The next step is the theory in which the hypothesis is supported by further observation. When the theory is tested and proved to hold true without exception, it is recognized as a general Jaw or principle. In psychology there are many — facts of behavior, and many working hypotheses and theories, but comparatively few final laws which are recognized by all. Psychology is not as yet an exact science in all of its phases. It can never be so until it can be used to predict and control human behavior unfailingly. Because of the complexity of human behavior, the task of developing the science appears endless.

Much is demanded of the scientific investigator. Even though one were not to be a scientist himself, it would be well for him to have an appreciation of the characteristics and work of the scientist. In the first place the scientist has an eager curiosity to know the truth. He lives, not in a closed world, but in one that is filled with problems. He has an active, creative imagination and a keen insight into relationships between forces and facts. Furthermore, he must have an open mind throughout the entire investigation. Prejudice interferes with the recognition of problems, leads one to neglect the needed solution of problems, to distort the data collected, to draw the wrong conclusions, and to resist the submission of conclusions to a test. The scientist should be a careful, thorough, honest worker who holds his judgment in suspense until all facts are in.

In distinct contrast to the psychologists who are imbued with the scientific spirit, there are many pseudo-psychologists (pseudo = false) who are constantly taking advantage of man’s credulity. Physiognomy, phrenology, graphology, palmistry, astrology, mental telepathy, spiritism, and mental healing are some of the fields in which pseudo-psychology operates. Many “fakers” claim to be able to read character at a glance, to offer vocational counsel that is absolutely reliable, to cure all sorts of bodily ills, to train the memory, and the like. Although some of them are doubtless honest, though misled by their own enthusiasms, the aim of many of them appears to be the accumulation of wealth and power. One should never mistake their statements or their publications for true psychology. The aim of the scientific psychologist is to further human knowledge, and thus provide opportunity for advances in human welfare. “Science is the living spirit of inquiry reverently at work in the service of the good life.” ? |

FIELDS AND APPLICATIONS OF PsycHoLocy.—Psychology may be regarded as a pure or general science, having to do with the impersonal and impartial study of human behavior and the formulation of general laws, without reference to any application which may be made of the truths discovered. In contrast to general psychology, and as extensions of it, many forms of applied psychology have developed. These consider the bearing which the facts and laws of general psychology have on specialized fields of human activity.

The wide field of applied psychology is divided for convenience into many classifications which are in no sense mutually exclusive. The chief ones are:

2J. K. Hart, Democracy in Education (The Century Co., New York, 1919), D. 409.

Educational psychology, which is concerned with the analysis of the nature of the learner and the methods by which learning processes are carried on most effectively.

Legal psychology, which considers such matters as the reliability of testimony, the method of organizing and conducting cases at law, and the factors which influence the criminal.

Business psychology, which emphasizes problems of business administration, employment, advertising, and salesmanship.

Medical psychology, in which the interest lies in diagnosing and treating pathological conditions such as feeble-mindedness, insanity, nervous prostration, and disorders due to or curable through mental suggestion.

Religious psychology, which deals with questions of the religious life of mankind as well as individuals, and the establishing of religious appeals, experiences and habits.

In certain of these fields, notably education and business, there has been a marked and successful development of practical applications. Little has thus far been done in the field of religious effort. Doubtless the expansion and use of psychological knowledge in this field will result in greater efficiency.

Other important divisions of psychology include child psychology, which deals with the mental characteristics of childhood at different levels of development; abnormal psychology, which treats of unusual mental states; social psychology, which considers man’s associations and relations with his fellows; physiological psychology, which is a systematic study of mental functions in relations to bodily structures and processes, especially those of the nervous system, and comparative psychology, the science of animal behavior.

The present text is concerned primarily with the facts involved in ordinary normal human conduct, especially as they are related to religious behavior and social relations. Use will be made of the principles of general psychology and relevant material from the various fields of application.

=

. Would psychology be interested in any of the following problems? If so, which ones? (a) The process of digestion. (b) The effect of concentrated study on digestion. (c) Can one study as effectively after eating a heavy meal? (d) Changes in the pulse during a state of fear. (e) Effect of alcohol on heart action.

2. Some of the items of the behavior of Mr. Rodger are itali-

cized. List all the others which are not thus indicated.

3. Does Mr. Rodger do any introspecting ? Observing of things or of people?

4. In reading the incident did you find yourself interested in Mr. Rodger’s conduct? Were you curious as to what he did next?

5. Point out cases from your own experience where psychology has been made use of in salesmanship, medical practice, teaching, religious work, or other fields.

6. State a problem in psychology which might be solved experimentally and indicate the method of solution.

7. Judged by the criteria here given, are there many scientific individuals among your associates?

8. Give an instance of the work of a pseudo-psychologist that

has come to your attention. How would you explain their

apparent success in reading character, giving vocational guidance, or other lines? Do they ever make use of truths or half-truths?

The introductory chapter of any standard text in psychology will aid in an understanding and appreciation of the nature and

PSYCHOLOGY—ITS NATURE AND FUNCTION 13 function of psychology. Some of the texts which present a simple, clear statement are: |

Angell, J. R., Introduction to Psychology (Henry Holt & Company, New York, 1918), Chap. I.

Colvin, S. S., Bagley, W. C., and McDonald, Marion, Human Behavior (The Macmillan Company, New York, 1929), Chap. I.

Dashiell, J. F., Fundamentals of Objective Psychology (Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1928).

Gast, Ira M., and Skinner, H. Clay, Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (Benj. H. Sanborn & Company, Boston, 1929). |

McDougal, Wm., Outline of Psychology (Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1923), Chap. I.

Pintner, Rudolph, Educational Psychology (Henry Holt & Company, New York, 1929).

Skinner, C. E., Gast, I. M., and Skinner, H. C., Readings in Educational Psychology (D. Appleton and Company, New Work, 1026), Chap. I.

Warren, H. C., Elements of Human Psychology (Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1923), Chap. I.

Weld, H. P. Psychology as Science (Henry Holt & Company, New York, 1928).

Woodworth, R.S., Psychology: A Study of Mental Life (Henry Holt & Company, New York, 1929), Chap. I.

Chapter II Basal Suructure Of The Neu Muscular, And‘ Glandular Systems

God made the human body, and it is the most exquisite and wonderful organization which has come to us from the divine hand. Henry Warp BEECHER

VALUE OF A KNOWLEDGE oF Brotocicat Facts.—All behavior has a physical basis. The child is born into a world in which many varied forces, seen and unseen, act upon him. He would not be. subject to these forces, however, nor could he respond to them, if he did not possess a physical mechanism especially adapted to them. In order that one:-may understand and appreciate man and his behavior fully it is necessary to analyze this structure in some detail and to study its development. There 1s an amazing lack of knowledge of the body and its functions. In some cases, unfortunately, this may be ascribed to an actual disrespect for the body, a conviction that it is sinful, carnal, and therefore unworthy. In other cases it may be charged to sheer neglect of that which is commonplace. A citizen will spend hours on end getting acquainted with the mechanism of his automobile, while at the same time he remains in almost complete ignorance of the vastly more delicate and significant mechanism of his physical body, especially as it relates to health and mental life. Philip Melancthon said:

“Tt is shameful for a man to rest in ignorance of the structure of his own body, especially when the knowledge of it mainly conduces to his welfare, and directs his application of his own powers.”

STRUCTURE OF CELLs or THE Bopy.—Man is a very complex multicellular organism (macro-organism) with a body made up of many billions of living cells. Each of these cells plays its part in determining the characteristics of the total organism.

All living cells, whether plant or animal, have certain structural characteristics in common. Each is a microscopic bit of protoplasm containing a nucleus. The protoplasm has to do with producing and transforming energy, and the nucleus with growth and reproduction.

The unicellular organism, such as the amoeba, has the power - of growth by which it comes to maturity, When mature, it reproduces itself by the simple act of division, each new cell being a duplicate of the parent cell, and floating free from it. In distinct contrast, the multicellular animal begins its development at the moment of the conception of life, when the female ovum is

Fic. I The Parent Cell fertilized by the male spermatozoa. The fertilized cell now begins the process of division. The resulting cells do not separate, as is the case with unicellular organisms, but remain attached by some adhesive force. When these cells reach maturity each of them again divides, and the process of segmentation goes on by.

the progression 2, 4, 8, 16, 32—. At this rate the increase in the number of cells is very rapid and soon mounts into thousands and millions.

DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL Functions.—The growing multicellular organism soon faces a situation not encountered by the unicellular animal. The individual cells of the embryonic life become buried in the mass, and no longer possess the power of independent activity. Food can no longer reach them, nor can they act as self-reliant units. They must serve the interests of each other and the whole organism.

There now begins a most remarkable process of differentiation of functions, One of the earliest steps is the setting apart of a group of germ cells which retain their characteristics and multiply throughout the reproductive life of the organism. These cells, except for accidental influences of the environment such as nourishment, are probably copies of the original fertilized ovum.

A cross section of the embyro soon shows a demarkation of three layers of cells: an outer one (ectoderm), a middle one (mesoderm), and an inner one (endoderm). From the first develop the skin tissues, membranes, and nerve substance, and from the last the bony and cartilaginous tissues. The mesoderm is the basis from which the muscular and organic tissues develop.

These cells now begin to be differentiated further into organs and systems of organs, adapted to the carrying on of highly specialized functions. In order that nourishment may be provided for all the living cells, some of them form a complex digestive system, involving an alimentary tract for the taking in of food, preparing it for assimilation, and excreting those portions which are not digested. To the end that this nourishment may reach remote cells in every part of the organism a circulatory system is provided, with blood and glandular secretions and special organs to further fit the food for assimilation, and to distribute and transmit the elements of nourishment to the cells. A respiratory system develops as an aid in both furnishing the cells with oxygen and providing an additional means of excretion.