The problem of the immigrant [microform] : a brief discussion, with a summary of conditions, laws, and regulations governing the movement of population to and from the British Empire, United States, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, Denmark, Scandinavia and Russia

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Preface

During a year spent in studying emigration and inunigration conditions in thirteen countries of Europe, it became necessary to familiarize myself with the situation in each country, so far as was practicable. It was found most difficult to get together the data required. Many different languages were involved, and the laws and regulations in some of the countries were contained in widely scattered statutes, Grovernment decrees, and police regulations. In many instences it was only through the courtesy and disinterested kindness of Government officials. Ambassadors, attactUs of Embassies, and consular representatives, that it was made possible to secure an intelligent idea of the situation. To these gentlemen, and to others who were most kin<J I wish to express my appreciation and obligation. Believing that some of the data would^ be of value to the many now interested in these topics, and, indeed, even necessary for an understanding of the international situation, and knowing of no work containing the same, I have ventured to gather in book form some of the material secured, which I hope will prove useful to those who are called upon to legislate, discuss, or write upon the subject. At least, this has

139072 vi PREFACE

been the object in view, and I trust the effort has not been in vain. No pretence is made that the discussion and data presented begin to cover the great field offered in the subject treated, nor is it intended that the volume should be considered as a technical lawbook, for the legal phase is merely outlined in the attempt to give some information as to the character of legislation now in force or under consideration.

JAMES DAVENPORT WHELPLEY.

London, Fehruary 13, 1905.

Contents

CHAPTKB PAOB

L brrRODUcnoN 1

U. Emigration an International Affair .... 5

Introduction

Out of the remote and little-known regions of Northern, Eastern, and Southern Europe, for ever marches a vast and endless army. Nondescript and ever-changing in personnel^ without leaders or organization, this great force, moving at the rate of nearly 1,500,000 each year, is invading the civilized world.

Like a mighty stream, it finds its source in a hundred rivulets. The huts of the mountains and the hovels of the plains are the springs which feed ; the fecundity of the races of the old world the inexhaustible source. It is a inarch the like of which the world has never 8C(m, and the moving columns are animated by but one idea — that of escaping from evils which have made existence intolerable, and of reaching the free air of countries where conditions are better shaped to the welfare of the masses of the people.

It is a vast procession of varied humanity. In tongue it is polyglot ; in dress, aU climes from polo to equator are indicated, and all religions and bclicfH enlist their followers. There is no age limit, for young and old travel side by side. There is no sex limitation,

B practical depopulation of Southern Italy and Sicily. The Russian Jews are leaving their homes largely because of political persecution. The emigrants from Austria-Hungary start on their journey Westward to escape burdens both economic and political. Last year 230,000 Italians, 200,000 Austro-Hungarians, and 136,000 Russians successfully passed the immigration barriers of a single country — th€ United States. The people of those three countries are tremendously prolific. Poverty and discomfort apparently have no efiect in decreasing the birth-rate, and phenomenally large families are the rule. The total population of Italy, Austria, and Russia, notwithstanding the drain of this enormous emigration, is increasing naturally year by year, this increase being largely confined, however, to the cities and more prosperous agricultural districts.

The Governments of the countries from which people are going have become thoroughly aroused to the evils of this drain upon national vitality. The peoples of the countries into which these emigrants are moving are even more concerned over the evident weakening of their own popular institutions through the unwelcome addition to the population of the large undesirable element which participates in this alien movement.

Chapter II

To police the world for the purpose of putting a wholesome restraint upon emigration is within the power — even now within the line of duty — of the greater nations. This can only be accomplished by an international and binding agreement, making the power conferred impressive, absolute, and compelling. The benefits of such an agreement would be mutual, and its results conducive to the safety, happiness, and prosperity not only of the strong but of the weak, not only of the free but of the oppressed.

The purposes of such an agreement as is here suggested may be briefly outlined as follows : — To encourage a high moral, physical, political, and educational standard of admission for immigrants ; and to these might well be added a financial or self-supporting qualification of sufficient scope to prevent the possibility of immediate dependence upon charity. To guard against the spread of disease from one country to another. To check undue activity on the part of transportation agents. To maintain a world-wide system of police identification and restraint of criminals. To persuade each nation to live up to its full responsibilities in the care of its own deficients. To induce the

' This chapter first appeared as an article in the FortnighUy Review, and 18 reproduced through the courtesy of the publishers.

A amelioration of political or economic wrongs in given areas where such influences are driving people from one country to another to the discomfort of the latter.

To avert war, to assist each other in times of great disaster, or to work together for any purpose tending towards the mutual welfare of two or more peoples, has always been accepted as a legitimate function of Governments, and a satisfactory object of international conference or agreement. Emigration has now become an international as well as a national question, peoples welcome the self-supporting, intelligent, an healthy foreigner ; but unfortunately for the peace an safety of prosperous and well-governed communiti the world over, a very large proportion of those now on the move cannot, even by courtesy or true syinpathy, be placed under this classification.

Between a million and a half and two million peoplei annually are now moving from one country to another,! seeking a change in their place of permanent residence.] Seven-eighths of those taking part in this exodus are from countries where the inhabitants are but partially civilized, from the Anglo-Saxon point of view ; or they are being forced out of their native environment by political or economic wrongs. No nation can efiectually control this movement single-handed, even in the matter of admissions to its own territory. There is a more or less well-organized conspiracy to break down or evade barriers which may be erected, and it succeeds to a remarkable degree; for the influences at work are international, hence cannot be neutralized from a single, or national, point of operation. This conspiracy is none the less efiective because it is peaceful, intangible, an does not come within the jurisdiction of law. originates in the disinclination of Governments assome their fall responsibility, in the pemidoni^ activity of those who profit from the moving ofl thousands of people, and in the inclination of the| oppressed to follow the line of least resistance towards^ final relief.

JL^ The concern of all nations is with emigration as well as immigration. It is not to the best interests of anyf country that a desirable element of its population shall depart for foreign lands, taking with them, perhaps, not so much in worldly goods, but reducing the productive power, decreasing the nulitary strength, and weakening the social fabric at a most vital point. In times of great industrial development it is necessary there should be an influx of labour firom abroad, but except in remote sections, or where local conditions are not favourable to the wage-earner, this need is generally promptly and naturally suppUed. There is also always a floatin population the world over, usually well able to tak care of itself — floating because of innate restlessness, o moved from one country to another because of vario but ordinary reasons personal to each individual. It not with the usual and natural migration of more less responsible human beings that nations are especial concerned at this, or, in fact, at any other time.

The present emigration movement is neither usual nor natural The countries which these emigrants are I leaving are sustaining by their departure a distinct and appreciable loss in productive power, military strength ia sapped, and the general tone of the districts thus I depopulated drops below the normal point, for t^ie reason that those who go are mostly males in the prime of life and at the height of their value to the community. The consequences of such an outward movement are most far-reaching. Labour becomes scarce and wages

I

low. This may sound contradictory, but it is true, as is shown in Southern Italy.

^Economic conditions in Central and Southern Europe are such that the cost of production must be small, or industry is impossible. Hence, when labour becomes scarce, and the natural tendency would be towards higher wages, industry and development are almost altogether checked, and the condition of the people left behind is soon even worse than when a larger number occupied the competitive field. Many other evils besides that of small eaming-power follow in consequence. Tax collections grow less, hence school conveniences and other community needs are supplied in less satisfactory manner. All business grows slack and unprofitable, and the country rapidly loses its vitality. The spirit of imrest and discontent is rife among those left behind by very reason of their inability to follow. Patriotism, loyalty, and other civic virtues necessary to the welfare of a State, sink to a low ebb.

X^n the other hand, it is extremely undesirable that

) thousands of foreigners of questionable value from a mental, moral, or physical point of view, should be allowed to freely invade well-governed and prosperous communities. They underbid the labour market, raise important and vexatious municipal questions, strain charitable resources to the utmost, increase the cost of government, expose a healthy people to contagious diseases common to the poorer classes of Europe, corrupt i the body politic, and in every way complicate a situation Inone too simple at its best.

The countries to which these people go are, as a rule, already well supplied with labour of a general character, and nearly all occupations are fully represented when the average earning power of the individual is taken into consideration. Even countries with large areas of land open to occupation now take no comfort from an influx of the oppressed from foreign lands, for those who go forth to pioneer must have initiative energy, resourcefulness, and individuality, to play the part ; and these qualities are sadly lacking in the average immigrant of to-day. They are gregarious, even clannish. Landing in the large cities, they seldom move on to the greater air-spaces of the country. They find employment, such as it is, with people of their own nationality, who shrewdly take advantage of their needs and fears, J ' to the detriment of local industrial and social conditions. ^

Leaving out of consideration the movement of all imquestionably undesirable people, such as criminals, paupers, deficients, etc., four distinct causes may be assigned for the present large emigration now afiecting, as stated, nearly two million people annually. These causes are natural, economic, political, and artificial. The natural emigration from any coimtry arises from the restlessness and ambition of youth and middle age apparent in all peoples, and only to be satisfied by new adventure. As a rule, the class of people dislodged from their native environment by this cause are acceptable additions to any foreign country. Economic wrongs are causing an exodus from Italy, and in a less degree from Austria-Hungary, and the story of evil consequences to the motherland is plainly written in the depression in agriculture and industry throughout the section affected. Sicily is practically depopulated,^ and from some of the Italian villages over 80 per cent, of the people have gone to the United States, to escape what really amounts to slavery and results in mental and bodily starvation.

The political cause for emigration is best illustrated in the case of the Hebrews of Russia. The laws of that country for twenty-two years have been of such a character as to drive the Jews from the land of their birth. Forced to live in the towns, deprived of nearly all opportunity for making a living, they are fleeing to other lands, seeking employment, education for their children, and freedom from persecution. Under a wise and liberal administration, the Jewish Pale and Poland would support and give employment to the development of its resources to all the people now living within their boundariea Emigration arises from political causes, and should the political powers of that country see fit, a condition could be brought about under which there would be no more than the natural movement abroad.

The artificial cause behind the present unprecedented exodus from Europe is the abnormal activity of the transportation companies in their effort to secure new and profitable cargo for their ships. The present emigration movement represents a gross annual income of at least £10,000,000 sterling, and it is encouraged and stimulated in every way known to the skilful and experienced men who have built up this business for themselves or their employers. The managements of these companies deny any knowledge of imnatural means being used to secure business, and disclaim responsibility for the thousands of sub-agents who are engaged in the sale of steamship tickets on the Continent. It is probably true that these men are not directly in their employ, but the business is done on a commission basis through general agents ; hence a subdivision of profit ia possible without direct responsibility. The transportation companies get the business,

however, and so sncoesBfol are their methods thai manj emigrant authorities hold them responsible for instigating possibly 50 per cent, of the departures for foreign lands. Foreign oonntries, sach as Italy and Hnngary, have laws against soliciting for this basines& Arrests have been made and sentences imposed, bet the work stiU goes on, assisted in some places by a complacent and not entirely disinterested bureaucracy.

Li the past fifty years about nine nuDicai natives of the United Kingdom have emigrated to foreign lands, over two-thirds of these having gone to places other than British colonies. Add to these the three million foreigners who have tarried in the United Kingdom for more or less time and then departed, and we have a total emigration from the British Isles alone of about twelve million people. During the past year 179,000 English, 37,000 Scotch, and about 46,000 Irish left for abroad, a total of 232,000 British who found it advantageous to leave their native land. In addition to these, about 190,000 foreigners sailed from English ports as the most convenient points of embarkation. If all of these native-bom English, Scotch, and Irish had gone to British colonies, the movement might be viewed with more equanimity, but three-fifths of tbem went to foreign countries, and were there welcomed as the best class of immigrants received from any source. If it might be considered that, owing to overcrowded conditions, it was necessary or desirable that the population of the British Isles should be lessened by this number, littie consolation can be derived from the feu^ts in the case, for it can almost be said that as soon as a native-bom left tiie country an alien landed to fill his place.

It is not the purpose here to enter into a discussion of the evils which have axisen from the alien invasion of London. They are now matters of general comment and knowledge. The mere fact that an Alien Bill, proposing to restrict this movement and control the element of foreign population after its arrival, has been introduced in Parliament, and received generous support, is sufficient evidence to the effect that the British people are fully alive to the dangers presented and to the responsibilities of Government.

The United Kingdom is also largely concerned in emigration matters from a colonial point of view. Last year, about 50,000 emigrants went to South Africa, about the same number went to Australia, and 75,000 were added to the population of Canada. While each of the colonies enforces more or less restrictive laws governing those who seek to enter, it is only necessary to note the experience of the United States to reach the conclusion that, should the popular tide of emigration turn towards these British colonies, attracted by prosperous conditions, or deftly directed that way by transportation interests, it would be equally impossible under present conditions for South Africa, Australia, or Canada to wholly exclude the undesirables. The United States added nearly a million to her population by immigration last year, receiving the bulk of the movement from Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, and, notwithstanding the drastic police power exercised over those who seek permission to land, thousands entered that country who were not only imdesirable, but whose presence is an actual detriment to the welfare of that nation.

These million emigrants did not go to the United States because of great areas of land offered for their occupation, or to scatter themselves throughout the 1 smaller industrial communities of the West, where

EMIGRATION AX IXTERNATION.\L AFFAIR 13

labour is insufficient. Thej congr^ted largely in the already over-crowded and congested centres of population, where they complicate the living problem for those already on the ground, and increase the difficulties of municipal administration. The United States immigration laws and restrictions are severe, and they are | thoroughly and intelligently enforced. With all this^ i however, they fall short of their purpose, for the simple I / reason that there is little or no control, actual or moral, } over the source of supply. It is an effort to beat back | the tide after it has rolled upon the shore, and in the I vast multitude of arrivals many gain entrance legally I whom the country would be better off without, ^

The emigration firom France has been barely a quarter of a million people in fifty y^ars, and the annual exodus is now less than six thousand. These people go to the United States or to Argentina. France is deeply concerned, however, in emigration matters, owing to t^e fact that her territory is a great highway for those coming from countries to the east and to the south. Russia, Austria, Italy, and the Levant send their thousands of emigrants each year to French ports, and the French people aro theroby exposed to all the evils which follow attendant upon this movement.

Germany is largely in the same category as France, and her interest in emigration as an international question is along much the same lines. Last year Germany lost less than 25,000 of her native-born through emigration, but a quarter of a million people firom countries to t^e east and south crossed her territory, and embarked firom German ports for other lands. There is no immigration into Spain, but 60,000 of her citizens left that country last year to take up their residence elsewhere. Most of these people went to

Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, and by their going created a dearth of labour in many agricultural districts, to the end that production was checked or made unprofitable. Last year Italy recorded a movement of 530,000 people from her territory, and while perhaps 40 per cent of these returned after a short absence, the net loss to her population represents a serious blow to her commerce and industry. Nearly half a million people moved out of Russia last year, and from this movement has arisen the serious problem with which England is now confronted in immigration matters, and which is shared to a certain extent by the United States.

(The evils attendant upon imrestricted immigration are not theoretical, but actualj|and no discussion of the subject need be purely academic. It is a practical, homely problem, engrossing the attention of Governments, puzzling the intelligent native-born, and suggesting possibilities for the future before which present results appear almost insignificant. Twenty years ago the movement was largely of people with a purpose and able to carry it out. Intelligent and industrious home-seekers and home-builders were looking for an outlet. They found it readily in the newer countries, and soon the movement decreased owing to exhaustion of supply.

-^Then followed the beginning of the exodus from Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. This developed rapidly from an emigration due to natural causes into a stampede, gathering headway with every passing month, and dragging into its current thousands of human beings who only know that they are fleeing from a harsh environment to something which they have heard is better. This stampede has now reached such proportions as to occupy all the energies of a score of steamship lines in handling the traffic, to warrant the establishment of new and more direct routes, and the building of new ships specially designed for the carrying of this cargo. The business is profitable: there are comparatively few restrictions upon it, and in Central and Southern Europe there is apparently a vast amoimt of human freight needing only the initiative push to make a start, and thus keep up for an indefinite term of years this gigantic industry. There is no demand for all these people in the countries to which they are going. The countries where they might possibly be of some advantage are getting only a comparative few.

There is no hope of an exhaustion of supply, for the^ most prolific races are now contributing their millions, / and yet iucreasing the population of their own countries. There is no hope of an improvement in quality, for the best come first and the dregs follow. Regardless of consequences to themselves or others, this irresponsible horde dumps itself or is dumped iuto communities / abeady strained to maintain a high level of individual life for the native-bom and the large foreign element already on the ground. The result is not a matter of conjecture. The strain becomes too great, and existing social and economic standards give way under pressure. The labour market is glutted, and the shrewd and avaricious make possible a form of slavery worse than that from which the negro was freed at cost of great wars. Cities divide into colonies of aliens of different i races, and the municipal authorities of highly civilized communities are confronted with new and perplexing problems.^ The demands upon charity and police sur- . veillance are increased in consequence of these changed \ conditions, and readjustment of life to fit the new order J of things is made necessary for all, regardless of prior occupation, implied or real rights.

There is the danger of disease, one not to be lightly regarded. There are many afflictions of the body common to the peoples of Southern Europe and the Levant, which are comparatively unknown to other and cleaner peoples. One of these, trachoma, that dread and disabling disease of the eyes, Egyptian ophthalmia, as it was formerly known when introduced into Italy by Napoleon's army, is prevalent in that part of the world from which a large number of people are now emigrating. Much is done to prevent its introduction and spread elsewhere, but not enough to guarantee entire safety. Should this disease become general, it would lower the value of the public educational system in any English-speaking country. There could be no democracy where contagion was possible, and only the poorest would send their children to schools subject to the taint. That this is really a serious danger, and not a chimera of the imagination, is shown by the fact that hundreds of cases are now treated by the hospitals in New York, whereas but a few years ago the disease was practically unknown in America. ^^ Serious plagues of disease are always a possibility in r countries to which large numbers of emigrants are I flocking ; for those now on the move come from parts of I the world where great plagues are always latent, only I awaiting favourable opportunity for development. In I the great rush of people to new lands the criminal, the I pauper, and the deficient escape close scrutiny, and bring their evil intentions or afflictions with them to fresh fields. The nation of their origin escapes its responsibility. Upon the people to whom they go is thrust the burden which rightly belongs elsewhere.

i:

EMIGRATION AN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIR T7 J

Many of these objections to large immigration might be overlooked, or the evils so administered as to deprive them of much of their threatening character, if the communities receiving these people had extended an invitation and needed this new population. They do not, however, for even the conscientious and worthy advocates of asylum for the oppressed of all lands are beginning to realize that charity begins at home; that the oppressed alien can crowd the labour market equally with the free man ; that the political refugee, afflicted with disease, is as dangerous to the community as the / man who leaves his own country without cause.

The emigration movement from one country is the immigration movement into another, or perhaps a dozen others. The evils political and economic which drive a quarter of a million people from a country each year most certainly concern the countries which receive > these people. The steamer which brings this freight to \ a foreign shore operates under two or more flags. All \ countries are concerned with keeping their own useful 1 citizens at home. All countries are concerned in pre- y venting the ingress of foreign criminals, deficients, or diseased. Emigration has unquestionably become an international affikir, and, until it is so treated, complications and evils resulting therefrom can only be partially and quite ineffectually controlled by each nation acting for itself, independently of all others.

All countries have laws and regulations governing ] tiie admission of aliens. These laws are of wide variety, however, and range from mere enumeration to prohibition. Nearly all of the civilized peoples have recognized the dangers of imported disease, and the ondesirability of foreign criminals. Restraining laws are generally in forces providing for inspection by/ c medical authorities, and forbidding the ingress of notorious criminals. With the exception of some international exchange of courtesies in the matter of criminals, there is up to the present time little or no co-operation among nations to help each other to secure desired results. The United States has taken the lead m imposing restrictions upon immigration, and by a roundabout method has inaugurated a system of inspection at several of the larger foreign ports of embarkationjj which, while necessarily not entirely effective, is working btisfactorily^as far as it has gone.

The Government of Italy maintains a close supervision over departing emigrants, attempts to restrain the solicitmg of transportation business, and will not allow the conduct of emigrant traffic to countries not desirable as places of residence for Italian citizens. While avowedly restrictive in its intent, the Italian law is far from effective in keeping people at home ; for the cause of the emigration Ues deeper in the economics of the country. When these shall be readjusted, which happy event is a possibility of the future, and the conditions under which the people of Southern Italy live shall become more bearable, the depopulation now in progress wiU subside, if not cease altogether.

Barring such beneficial effect as the emigration restrictions of countries like Italy and Hungary may have in checking the exodus, the American law presents the only feature directly bearing upon international co-operation. No alien ia allowed to land in the United States if he or she comes within the prohibited classifications, whether such alien is intending to remain in the United States or to proceed at once to some foreign country. In this manner the United States protects Canada and Mexico and any other country reached via

American territory firom the dangers of imported disease and the addition of criminals or deficients to their populations.

To carry out the idea of international co-operation in matters of emigration, let it be supposed that an International Conference of all the Powers was held to exchange ideas, and if possible reach some mutually satisfactory basis for an agreement. There would be many conflicting interests at work, and many differences of opinion to be adjusted. It might and probably would take much time and several meetings before an imderstanding could be reached, but there would be some important points upon which, in spite of possible differences as to the best methods, all would promptly agree as to the principles involved. No country desires to lose its useful citizens. To minimize this evil, a general agreement could be reached to enact laws forbidding undue effort on the part of those interested to secure passenger business. Severe penalties could be provided for violations of this restriction, and still greater penalties for inducing people to leave their homes through false representations as to prospects for employment, opportunity or wealth elsewhere. Italy already has such a law, but the operations of the promoters are carried on just beyond her borders, and the effectiveness of the law is greatly lessened.

To secure harmony in establishing a standard of admission would be more difficult, but the United States and the great nations of Western Europe would probably agree, except in minor matters, due to local needs or conditions. If aliens are to be admitted to a country not calling for them, it is a self-evident truth that the better the character of those aliens the better for all concerned An international agreement to guard against the spread of disease could meet with no serious objection. To exercise sanitary and discriminating supervision over all public carriers is already a part of each nation's business, but this could be so enlarged and extended as to include special reference to emigration and immigration. An international exchange of poUce information is now carried on to a certain extent, but it is devoid of system^/^and a bureau of intelligence could be organized which would make an offender against the laws of his native land an object of watchfulness throughout the civilized world.