The principles of language exemplified in a practical English grammar : with copious exercises designed as an introduction to the study of language generally, for the use of schools, and self-instruction

Preface

A BRIEF recital of the circumstances under which this work was compiled will explain the object proposed to be accomplished by it, and render needless any apology for thus adding another to the many English Grammars already existing. Its Author was for some years engaged as Professor of English in a scholastic establishment of high character upon the Continent, in which were pupils of various nations, including some from the United Kingdom. The latter being, for the most part, destined for the public service, more especially for the army, had been sent to a foreign school that they might acquire the principal modern languages. Among them were young gentlemen verging on manhood, some of them from the very highest public schools in England, and far advanced in the Classics, yet commonly so little familiar with the Principles of Grammar, as to be incapable of illustrating some of the simplest of them in their mother tongue, and therefore unable to follow the classes of French, German, &c., as taught by the various professors j for the latter always proceeded upon the assumption, that the pupil was acquainted with the Grammar of his own language. Under these circumstances the Author was occasionally called upon by the Principal of the Institution, to impart to a pupil, in his own language, such a knowledge of the cardinal maxims of Grammar as would qualify him to follow their development in any other language. In the accomphshment of this object, the first difficulty to be overcome was a repugnance on the part of the pupil to enter upon

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IV PREFACE.

the proposed study^ a sentiment generally shared by the parents, with whom it was a common remark, that they had not sent their sons abroad to learn English. The delusion so general in this country, — a delusion countenanced unfortunately by many engaged in education, that in learning the Latin Grammar we acquire that of our own language, — though found to be such, was still tenaciously adhered to, and the new study was commenced with little good will 0:1 the part of the pupil. The only English Grammar to be had was that of Murray, a work no way adapted to aid the Author in his purpose 3 and he therefore set about compiling such an explanation of the mechanism of the simple sentence, and the grammatical accidents of its clauses, as would enable a pupil to recognize and point out the corresponding members of the sentence in another language. A change was afterwards made in the Institution, by which boys were admitted at an earlier age, and this, with an accession to the number of English scholars, led to the establishment of a regular course of English Grammar for their special instruction ; and thus the Author became engaged, for the first time, in explaining his own language to his own countrymen. As the object of the course was, however, to teach the Science of Grammar, rather than English Grammar, he conceived that the method, which had answered so well with older pupils, might, if further developed, be rendered a still more efficient auxiliary to the progress of the younger 3 nor was he disappointed by the result. The mode of teaching in foreign schools was perhaps no mean help to success ; for, after having familiarly explained the subject of the lesson, he was enabled to show in chalk, upon the black board, any number of illustrations that he might deem necessary 3 and, by calling forward one or more of the pupils, convince himself, by their performance in face of the class, that the matter was per-

PREFACE. V

fectly understood. As nothing was required that was beyond the pupil's capacity, he readily set about forming sentences in imitation of those that he had seen upon the board ; the lessons were even looked forward to with pleasure, and the exercises commonly rendered in excess. The progress of the pupil was doubtless accelerated, by the confirmation which the grammatical notions thus obtained daily received in the other classes, where the knowledge acquired in his English lessons enabled him to comprehend clearly that which the professor was there explaining to him ; for those repetitions, by proving to him the utility of his English Grammar, strengthened his confidence in the principles that it taught. Without a specific plan, and misled by some specious hope of finding a shorter route to a given point, the author occasionally lost his way 3 but as the only object of his search was truth, as he had no cherished fancies to which he would make even principles succumb, when he thus discovered himself at fault, he quietly led the unconscious pupil back to the point whence he had strayed, and renewed his pursuit by another road. From the desire to render his course as subservient as possible to other studies, he has, on some few minor points, waived his own opinion in deference to that of others -, but the work which he noW submits to his fellow -labourers in the field of instruction shows, in its arrangement, the course which, after long and anxious experience, he has found the most successful, and which he therefore conceives to be the best. It may be that some work upon a similar plan already exists in our language, if so, he can only regret that his ignorance of the fact has imposed upon him a weary task which might have been spared.

Having thus given the history of the work, a few observations may be allowed upon its matter. If universality be held a proof of the wisdom of a practice, it

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VI PREFACE.

will scarcely be contested, that, in a well-directed system of education, the earliest studies of youth should be devoted to the vernacular idiom. The neglect of our own language is the radical vice of our educational system, which is, in this respect, at variance with that of every other enlightened people, ancient and modern; for with the latter now, as with the former of old, the first subject of intellectual study is the grammar of the mother tongue. Grammar has been aptly termed the '' Torch of Language," of which it serves to show the principles 3 and language being but the representative of thought, it is clear that its principles can be best taught in that idiom in which the pupil thinks. They are few in number, and of such beautiful simplicity as to be within the comprehension of a mere child, when exhibited in his own language ; in which indeed they may be taught with a facility and completeness inconceivable to those who have only witnessed the results of the ordinary methods of instruction. As language is but the representative of thought, and as men, from identity of organization, necessarily follow the same mental processes in the formation of the ideas which they express in their various tongues, it results that the same principles which govern the language that we ourselves speak, must be found predominating every other language that can be spoken. Thus the young grammarian commences the study of another language with great advantages over him who is ignorant of the science. He knows beforehand the principles which must pervade it, and is able to appreciate any peculiarities, in which it either diverges from principles, or differs from his own. To him the various classes of words are but old friends, whose change of dress awakens new interest. Accustomed to analysis, he recognizes at once the various members of the sentence, occupying perhaps different positions, and assuming other forms, but fulfilling the

PREFACE. VU

identical functions and obeying the same laws as in his own language. Points, which from the bold and unfettered genius of our English scarcely admit of illustration in it, he now sees defined with a precision that defies mistake. The sympathy of the Participle and the Adjective with the substantive becomes visible in the Concord : the varying termination of the substantive, indicating its relation more or less direct to the other members of the sentence, shows the true value of Case : in a word, those very changes, which present to the uninstructed an inextricable labyrinth of difficulties, form the thread that guides the young grammarian through the mazes of the most complicated sentence, offering, as they do, at every turn, illustrations of principles with which he is already familiar. Powerful, however, as is the aid which the principles of grammar thus lend to the acquisition of languages, and despite the "Systems" of teaching the latter, of which we daily hear, it may be boldly asserted, that there is no branch of education in which so little profit is drawn from principles.

Although the Author believes that grammar may be best taught to a child in his own language, he does not think that it can be completely taught in any single one ; for all have defects, all have peculiarities, which the grammarians of each are too apt to treat as principles. Now he holds it to be practicable, that every lad who can remain at school till he is fourteen years old, should quit it perfectly acquainted with at least two languages besides his own, and this without having neglected his other studies. But to ensure this desirable result, it is indispensable that his grammatical studies commence with his own language, although at a subsequent period they may be advantageously carried on concurrently with others. The wish to aid his progress is the motive that has called forth the present work, in which the Author has sought assistance from the logician rather

VIU PREFACE.

than from grammarians : in so doing, however^ he trusts that he has not rendered his meaning obscure, or his matter repulsive. From having been more intimatelyconnected with German than with other professors, — for the first taught the ancient languages as well as their own, — he feels that he has been drawn, almost unconsciously, to German rather than to French views upon the subject of grammar. Indeed the opinions of Becker, and of numerous other able grammarians of the same country, are so just, that they secure ready assent when once understood ', but these writers are frequently so abstruse and metaphysical as to be distasteful to youth. Against this fault the Author has endeavoured to guard himself : should he have been unsuccessful, he begs the assistance of the teacher in explaining to the pupil what is obscurely or imperfectly expressed in the work. He conceives that a teacher may render the present '' System," if he may be permitted to use that prostituted term, highly subservient to the advance of his pupils in other languages, whether ancient or modern. To test its efficiency for the latter, the Author (is now engaged with a friend, a French gentleman of high literary attainments and great experience in tuition, in preparing for the press a work, based upon the principles developed in the present volume, by the aid of which, as he believes, not only will an acquaintance with that elegant language be facilitated, but a perfectly idiomatical knowledge of it ensured.

In conclusion, the Author earnestly requests that any gentleman connected with education, into whose hands his work may fall, that is sceptical as to its fitness for its designed object, will fairly try its merits with one or two of his pupils, and let his opinion abide the result of the experiment.

Lojidon, Oct. nth, 1843.

TO TEACHERS.

Without presuming to dictate to those who may pay him the flattering comphment of introducing the present work into their schools, the method in which it is to be used, the Author conceives that he may be excused, if he ventures to suggest some of the means, by which the exercises, required from the pupils, may be rendered subservient to their advance in other studies. He strongly recommends that at least three lessons should be had in a week, at which rate the course will be completed in about a year and a half : the time thus consumed will be amply saved in the facilities given to the accomplishment of other duties. The number of sentences to be furnished under each lesson can be easily adapted to the age and intelligence of the pupil; and while for some the lessons themselves may prove unnecessarily numerous, and therefore admit of condensation, by reducing two into one, with others of slower apprehension, it may be useful to dwell upon and work up some of the points by repeated exercises. It is highly desirable to keep alive in the pupil's mind the object of the particular lesson upon which he is engaged : to render him attentive to the motive that suggests the employment of each word, and thus accustom him by an easy process to habits of reasoning. It is also recommended that the matter of the sentences be frequently limited to some branch of School learning, suggested by the Teacher, and having reference to the current studies of the Class ; as History, Sacred and Profane, Ancient and Modern ; Geography ; Natural History generally ; the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms ; &c. &c. Opportunities will thus befound of furnishing orally, where the continental system of chalk and the black board is not in use, repeated illustrations of the point that the pupil is expected to exemplify in the coming exercise ; till even the dullest will perceive what it is that is required of him. The profit to the pupil from

X TO TEACHERS.

these exercises is not confined to the grammatical knowledge thus obtained : the seeking for matter, and the act of writing out the propositions in language of his own, will greatly aid in fixing the facts themselves in his memory ; while the habit of expressing himself promptly and methodically upon any subject in his own language, will accelerate his progress in others, and more especially the living ones, from the readiness with which he sets about forming phrases with the words as he acquires them : the pupil, who is willing to write a language, will soon begin to speak it. Instead of listlessly translating a certain number of given sentences, to whose construction he pays little attention, because he feels little interest in them, the pixpil who is to express his own thoughts in a new language must, and indeed will willingly, reflect upon the appropriate manner of doing so. He not only knows what he is about to do, but is also aware of what is necessary to its being well done. During the progress through the work, the Teacher can at all times attach such conditions to each lesson, as he may think necessary to keep in activity the knowledge which the pupil has already gained. The Author has commonly abstained from restrictions of this kind, that his book might be rendered auxiliary to every branch of learning. In the exercises upon complex sentences, and more especially in those treating of participial substantives, he advises that the pupil should be frequently practised in rendering ideas by various equivalent forms. This mode of expression is so peculiar to our language, and of such frequent occurrence in it, that it becomes a matter of considerable importance to render it promptly by a phrase analogous to that by which it must be expressed in another language. As soon as the pupil has worked through the first chapter, or even earlier, he may set about learning another language, the study of which will indeed serve to confirm his grammatical knowledge, and encourage him in the pursuit of it, from the consciousness of power that an acquaintance with principles always gives. The exercises, when corrected, should be carefully copied and preserved ; strict attention being paid to the orthography, especially with beginners. The irksome labour of revising the exercises thus copied, may be lightened by requiring the pupils to examine and mutually guarantee the accuracy of the transcription.

Chapter I

Section I. — The Simple Sentence n.— Of Number in.— Of Gender IV.— Of Person v.— Of Case VL— Of the Predicate VII. — Number and Person of the Verb VEIL— Of Tense ...

IX.— Of Mood X. — Concord of the Adjective XI.— Of Negation XII.— The Genitive Case XIIL— Order of Words

10 11 13

Chapter II. The Simple Sentence Extended

Section I. — Closer Definition of Substantives. Addition II, — Subject represented by the Definitive III. — Progressing (incomplete) Action IV. — Complement of Verbs V. — Pronominal Complement of Verbs VL — Reflected Action VII. — Double Complement of Verbs Vm. — Complement of Adjectives IX. — The Attribute expressed by a Substantive X. — The Passive Voice of Verbs XL — Circumstances of the Action. Adverbs XII. — Time of the Action XIIL— Place of the Action XIV. — Manner of the Action XV. — :Origin of the Action XVI. — Complement of Adverbs XVII. — Several Circumstances in the Predicate XVni. — Recapitulatory Observations upon Chapter II

Chapter III

Section I. — The Compomid Sentence. Conjunctions n. — Participial Connectives III. — Order of the Compound Sentence rV. — Degrees of the Adjective

Xll CONTENTS,

Chapter IV. The Complex Sentence

Page

Setcion I. — Of Complex Sentences Generally 101

II. — Of Co-ordinately combined Complex Sentences. 103

III. — Of Double Conjunctions ... ... Ill

IV. — Of Subordinately- combined Complex Sentences. 115

v.— Of the Relative Tenses ... 116

VI.— Of the Subjunctive Mood ... ... 118

VII. — Of Accessory Attributive Sentences. Relative

VIII. — Nominative Sentences ... ... ... 135

IX. — Of Interrogatives ... ... ... 139

X. — Accusative Sentences. Completive of Verbs .. . 141 XI. — Accusative Sentences. Completive of Adjectives 145 XII. — Adverbial (Circumstantial) Sentences. Comparison of Adverbs ... ... ... 148

XIII. — Adverbial Sentences Circumstantial of Place ... 149

XIV. — Adverbial Sentences Circumstantial of Time ... 152

XV. — Adverbial Sentences Circumstantial of Manner. 155

XVI. — Adverbial Sentences Cucumstantial of Origin... 157

XVII.— The Infinitive Mood. Verbal Substantives,

Participles &c. ... 160

XVIII.— The Case Absolute ... ... ... 1 75

XIX. — Modal Adverbs and Sentences, and Interjections 176 XX. — Recapitulatory Observations upon Complex Sentences ... ... 178

XXI. — Extended Complex Sentences ... ... 180

Chapter V. Etymology

Section I. — Of the Various Kinds of Words 187

II. — Of the Substantive or jSToun ... ... 188

III.— Of Pronoims ... ... 194

IV.— Of Adjectives ... ... ... 200

v.— Of the Articles ... ... 205

VII.— Of Participles ... ... 241

VIII.— Of Verbal Substantives ... ... 245

IX.— Of Prepositions ... ... 247

XL— Of Con^" unctions ... 251

XII.— Of Interjections ... ... ... 252

XIII.— Derivation ... ... 253

Chapter VI The

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE.

INTRODUCTION.

SECTION I.

THOUGHT AKD LANGUAGE.

Man has been endowed with the faculty of T h ought; that is, he has the power of forming ideas concerning the various objects that surround him, or that present themselves to his mind ; and, as the operations of the mind can neither be seen nor heard, he has also received from his beneficent Creator the gift of Speech, by which he is enabled to communicate to his fellowman that which passes in his mind.

The faculty of speech has developed itself in Language; and, to extend the communication of thought, originally limited to the range within which the voice could be heard, men have invented signs, serving to convey to the mind, through the medium of the eye, the same ideas that would be conveyed by the ear, could the sounds which these signs represent be heard ; and we have thus a Spoken Language and a Written Language.

Grammar, as a science, treats of the principles of language generally ; when practically applied, as an art, to any particular language, its object is to teach how to speak and write that language correctly.

The simplest expressions employed in communicating thought are Words, which are articulate

Ic IISTRODTTCTION.

sounds, either simple or complex, represented in writing by signs of one or more syllables.

As words represent thoughts, we cannot fully comprehend the various meanings which they express unless we well understand that which passes in the mind.

The operations of the mind are Conception, Judgment, and Reasoning.

Conception is a spontaneous action of the mind, by which is presented to it the idea of some object^ whether material, as a man, a ship, or an abstraction in a manner realized and regarded as an object, as speed, virtue, science.

Judgment is the assertion that an object which we have conceived is distinguished by certain attributes, as, after having conceived the idea of snoio and the idea of whiteness, I assert that snow is ivhite.

Eeasoning is the use of previous judgments as the grounds of a new one; as, after having judged that intoxication is injurious, and that opium intoxicates, I thence conclude that opium is injurious.

Reasoning is but an extended exercise of judgment. The two more important operations of the mind, therefore, for the grammarian, are conception and judgment, or the object of thought and the impression which it leaves, for thence springs the assertion.

Starting from this luminous principle, the true foundation of the metaphysics of language, I shall lead the attentive and diligent pupil from sentences that embody the simplest operations of the understanding; and, proceeding gradually to more extended forms, reach at last the most intricate combinations of words that man has adopted for the purpose of communicating that which passes in the mind. Although the track proposed differs from that commonly pursued, it is one that will assuredly conduct us to the end proposed — a clear perception of the Principles of Language, and a perfect knowledge of English Grammar .

INTRODUCTION. 6

SECTION II. laBTTERS AND SVZsIi ABLBS.

"Words, in tvritten language, are composed of Letters. The letters employed in a language form what is called its Alphabet : the English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters : — A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, E, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.

Of these a, e, i, o, u, j, are called Vowels; they can be distinctly articulated by themselves.

The other letters are called Consonants, because they can only be sounded in connection with a preceding or succeeding vowel.

But y at the beginning of a syllable is regarded as a consonant, and w following a vowel is considered to be a vowel.

Each of our vowels represents several distinct sounds, while the same sound may be represented by different letters ; and for other sounds, that are in themselves perfectly simple, we have no single vowel, but represent them by a combination of vowels.

As an illustration of different sounds represented by the same signs take the letters *^ ough " in cough, though, plough, through, tough : the same sound is represented by different letters in the words her, sir, cur; or in the words peace, niece, police, fleece, conceit, complete, fatigue. These instances will show the capricious nature of our orthography : an attempt to classify the sounds of our language, and the letters used to represent them, might perhaps assist a foreigner about to acquire it : but to the English student the Art of Spelling will be best taught by WRITTEN Exercises.

When two vowels are so combined in a sole articulation, that, though forming but one syllable, they may each be heard, they constitute what is called a Diphthong, as, "oi"in coin, or "ai" in paid. A Triphthong is the combination of three vowels in one sound, as in the word view.

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4 INTRODUCTION.

The names given to our consonants do not, by any means, represent the exact value of those letters ; for, as they cannot be articulated by themselves, they have no perfect sound. Those sounds of spoken words that distinctly strike the ear, are, in the written symbols of such words, represented by the vowels ; while the consonants merely indicate certain modifications which the vowel sounds receive in utterance. These modulations are effected by the organs of articulation, the lips, tongue, teeth, nose, palate, or throat ; after which the consonants are divided into labials, linguals, dentals, &c., according to the organ by which the modification that they represent is effected.

Let the word "bad" serve to illustrate the difference between the tvYO classes of letters, vowels, and consonants. If the letters were fully pronounced as they are named, they would form be-a-de ; instead of which a sound, represented by the vowel "a," is affected in its commencement by that action of the lips which produces the modification indicated by our consonant "h;" and, at its conclusion, a different modification is effected by the action of the tongue against the upper teeth, which causes the sound that we call "d."

This subject of letters and their various values has, in some of our grammars, been treated at great length : consonants have been divided into mutes, liquids, semi-vowels, &c,, with other distinctions that it would be profitless to particularize here. Should the pupil be inclined to look more curiously into the matter, he will, if he defer the examination till he has reached the concluding lesson of the present work, find himself much better qualified to appreciate the utility of such a study, the consideration of which, at present, would retard his progress without promising any advantage.

Each, portion of a word that is uttered at a single emission of the voice is called a Syllable.

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable.

Ex.: Bad, rich, cat, see, feel, man, house.

A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. Ex. : Bob-ber, beck-on, cor-ner, can-die, bul-lock, shep-herd.

IKTRODUCTION. 6

A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable.

Ex. : Ex-cel-lent, re-cre-ate, po-si-tive, wick-ed-ness, e-ne-my.

A word of more than three syllables is called a Polysyllable.

Ex,: Au-tho-ri-ty, ex-e-cra-ble, po-pu-la-ri-ty, un-par- dona-ble, de-ter-mi-na-ti-on, in-com-pre-hen-si-bi-li-ty.

The foregoing terms, derived from the Greek, are equivalent respectively to single syllable, double syllable, treble syllable, many syllable.

Section III. Ideas

We can form ideas of the objects that exist in the world, as a stone, vifloiDer, water; and we can also forpi ideas of things which, though not material objects capable of being seen or touched, are yet in a manner realized in the mind and regarded as objects; as anger, goodness, love, joy, space. When the idea of a thing presents itself to the mind, we commonly form some judgment respecting it; and this judgment assumes one of three forms.

I. We consider the object with reference to others to which it bears some affinity, and determine what it is. Thus the horse is classed as an animal, temperance is judged to be a virtue, drunkenness is declared a vice, grammar is ranked as a science, &c.

II. We regard the object as distinguished by some peculiar quality, and express our judgment accordingly. Thus the horse is swi/'t, temperance is healthful, drunkenness is disgraceful, grammar is difficult, &c.

III. We consider the actions of which the object is capable, or the effects that it produces, and our judgment assumes a new form. The horse neighs, temperance strengthens, drunkenness debases, grammar instructs, &c.

O INTRODUCTION'.

We tlius have :

1. Ideas of the species of things; or of What

THEY ARE.

2. Ideas of the qualities of things ; or of How

THEY ARE.

3. Ideas of the actions of things ; or of What

THEY DO.

The words which serve to express these ideas may be divided into three classes, corresponding with the three sorts of ideas just mentioned ; and every word serving to recal the notion of a thing itself, of how it is, or of what it does, belongs to the corresponding class of words.

1. Those words which name the object of thought are called Substantives.

Ex. : Man, child, stone, tree, fish, house, elephant, gold, wine, solitude, wisdom, ignorance, duty, pleasure.

2. Those words which express how a thing is, are called Adjectives.

Ex. : Old, young, fat, handsome, green, vicious, limpid, lively, large, precious, dull, gracious, terrible.

3. Those words that express what a thing does, are called Verbs.

Ex. : Speak, instruct, convey, foretel, bum, run, gallop, swim, play, shake, shine, fight, throw.

The three kinds of words just enumerated. Substantives, Adjectives, and Verbs, form as it were the staple of every language : their functions in all are preciselysimilar to those which they perform in our own.

EXERCISE.

Lesson 1. — Express in writing a thought upon each of the following substantives, taking care to place a period or full stop (.) after each sentence.

Gold. sky. sun. cat. horse, pigeon, squirrel, lion. pig. hawk, fish, snake, bull. ass. cock. goat, sheep, raven, tiger, partridge, pheasant, giraffe, mouse.

Ex. : Gold is a metal. The sky is clear. The sun shines.

INTRODUCTION. 7

Note. — When we assert what an object is, as in the sentence ''gold is a metal," the word "metal" being but another name for the object '*gold," is of course a substantive.

Lesson 2. — Write as many substantives, of one syllable only, as you can possibly think of that name objects which might be seen in the course of a walk, and place a comma (,) after each.

Ex. : Tree, boy, star, cow, grass, stone, leaf.

Lesson 3. — Write as many substantives, dissyllables, as you can recollect naming similar objects, and divide the two syllables by a short stroke, called a hyphen (-), taking care to place a comma after each word.

Note. — It may assist the young scholar in dividing his words properly, to remark, that any consonant, except .r, stand ing between two vowels, is commonly joined to the last syllable, as : as, ba-sin, la-bour, ra-zor. Where two or more consonants come together, they are sometimes divided, as in the examples given for this lesson ; but at other times they are attached to the second syllable; as, sta-ble, bro-ther, ca-price, ci-pher. If two vowels come together, and do not form a diphthong, that is, if they are not so blended together in the utterance as to form one syllable, they must be separated when the word is divided in syllables; as, bri-ar, Ji-on, fu-el, ru-in, po-et. When the pupil is uncertain as to the manner of dividing a word, let him consult his ear, and reduce it into the same syllables in writing that he divides it into in pronunciation ; recollecting, that if the word is a derivative, that is, if it be formed from some simple word called a root, this root will generally remain entire when the derived word is divided into syllables ; as, debt'Or, suck-\x\g, west-em, beat-Qn. This rule is, however, hable to many exceptions ; take for instance the word gram-ma-ri-an, of whose pronunciation we should have a very incorrect notion were it divided according to the root ** grammar.'*