Pre-palaeolithic man

Preface

The important subject of pre-hist oric archaeology has of late years come into considerable prominence in this country, and many excellent works, dealing with the antiquity and skeletal and cultural remains of ancient man, have become accessible to the general public. But in these books, the past history of the human race is not generally traced further back than the Early Palaeolithic period, when dexterously flaked flint implements of the type known as “ Chellean " were in use. It seems clear, however, that these Chellean specimens cannot represent man’s first efforts in flint implement making, and that, in consequence, they were preceded by more primitive artefacts which would be found in geological deposits more ancient than those of the Chellean epoch. This little book deals with some of these pre-Chellean implements, and endeavours to show how, in all probability, such specimens were slowly “ evolved ” into the earliest palaeolithic, and later, humanly-fashioned flints. It is becoming more and more evident that a knowledge of the details of flint fracture is of the greatest importance if a real and proper understanding is to be obtained of the flint implements upon which the view of the great antiquity of man is based, as, without such a knowledge, uncertainty must prevail as to whether any given specimen has been flaked by man, or by the unguided forces of nature. Thus I have given in Chapter I. an account of the results of certain experiments in flint fracture, which, while not claiming to be the last word upon this subject, may nevertheless, enable the reader to form a better judgment of the value of the pre-palseolithic implements as witnesses to the remoteness of the period when man first began to shape flints to his needs, than if no such experimental work had been described. Most of the subject matter of this volume has already appeared in the pages of

PREFACE.

Science Progress, and the Proceedings of the Pre-hisioric Society of East Anglia, but the time now seems opportune for the new facts regarding the antiquity of the human race to be laid before a larger public such as will be able to have access to this volume.

I would wish to take this opportunity to express my great indebtedness to Sir Ray Lankester, k.c.b., f.r.s., for the invaluable help and guidance he has given me. It is not too much to say that, without his continual support and encouragement the work I have been able to do in prehistoric research would never have been accomplished. I have to acknowledge also with my best thanks the permission of the Editors and Publishers of the above-mentioned journals to re-print certain of my papers and articles which they have published, and for the loan of blocks to illustrate the present volume. In the text figures of flint implements the unflaked cortex of the specimens is indicated by dotted areas. All the views expressed regarding the manner in which the various implements were made have been tested by means of experimental work in flint fracture.

Is^ November, 1919.

J. REID MOIR.

PRE-PAL^OLITHIC MAN.

Chapter I. FLINT FRACTURE AND FLINT IMPLEMENTS

The correct determination of human flaking upon a flint has always been a vexed question with archaeologists. The difflculty arose, apparently, in the first place, with the discovery of the Neolithic axes and arrow-heads, as the late Sir John Evans {Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, 2nd Edition, pp. 56 and 362) mentions that in certain old books these specimens are described respectively as “ Thunder-bolts ” and “ Elf Arrows,” clearly proving that a supernatural origin was accorded to them. Though we have no evidence that advanced archaeologists were in existence in those somewhat remote times, yet it seems feasible to suppose that even then there were some unable to accept the supernatural theory and who claimed that the flint axes and arrow-heads represented the work of human brains and hands. Be that as it may, the fact remains that no one has for many long years disputed the human origin of these particular flaked flints, which are now universally accepted as affording conclusive evidence of human intention.

But the condition of quiescence so long prevailing in prehistoric circles was rudely shattered by the discoveries of Boucher de Perthes in the valley of the Somme. About the year 1841 it became noised abroad that definite flint implements of man had been found in undisturbed river-gravels of this district, associated with the bones of extinct animals, and that these discoveries afforded evidence of the existence of man at the remote period when such animals existed, and prior to the time when the ancient gravels containing their remains were laid down. Immediately these discoveries were made known to the scientific world, archaeologists were plunged into a most violent and sustained controversy regarding the flaked flints discovered. The majority of authorities made haste to repudiate

PRE-PAL/EOLITHIC MAN.

the claim of Boucher de Perthes, and asserted that the flints had been flaked by natural causes, and if not, then they had been made by the workmen at the pits, who had surreptitiously inserted them in the gravel from whence they were removed by the enthusiastic but misled archaeologist. The various and extraordinary arguments put forward against the idea of the human origin of the palaeolithic implements discovered by Boucher de Perthes, are fortunately preserved and can be studied in a book entitled “The Antiquity of Man,’’ consisting of papers selected chiefly from the Transactions of the Victoria Institute (Elliott Stock, 62, Paternoster Row, E.C.)

There were, however, a few men, who having seen and handled some of Boucher de Perthes' specimens stated they were in agreement with his opinion as to their human origin.

But these opinions made little headway, and for many years the majority of archaeologists held to the belief that the flints found in the valley of the Somme had been flaked by some unknown natural forces;

Gradually, however, opinion began to change. Investigations carried out in river-gravels in this country and elsewhere established the fact of the occurrence in these deposits of similar flaked flints to those found by Boucher de Perthes, and at length, after much searching of heart on the part of the archaeological world, palaeolithic man came into his own. With the general acceptance of the palaeoliths, a condition of comparative tranquillity once more descended upon the question of man’s antiquity ; and though there were some bold spirits who held that an elaborately flaked palaeolithic implement could not, in the nature of things, represent man’s first effort in the fashioning of flint, and that, in consequence, his earlier efforts would probably be found in deposits more ancient than the palaeolithic river-gravels, yet these were but “ voices crying in the wilderness ” and little heed was paid to them.

The mutterings of the coming storm, which was to sweep away the orthodox limits set to the antiquity of the human race, were first heard from Ightham in Kent, where Mr. Benjamin Harrison, having found palaeolithic implements in the oldest river gravels of his district began to investigate still more ancient deposits situated on the high plateau of Kent. These investigations resulted in the

CHAPTER 1.

discovery of a series of rough flints exhibiting flaking along one or other of their edges. This discovery and the announcement that several archaeologists, including the late Sir Joseph Prestwich, regarded these specimens as affording evidence of the former existence of a race of beings much more ancient than the makers of the palaeoliths, initiated another period of unrest, and for the third time the archaeological world was grievously disturbed, and the usual division of forces took place. Those who supported Mr. Harrison asserted that the flaked flints he had discovered were undoubtedly the work of man, and represented the type of implement which they would expect to find in such an ancient deposit, while his opponents contended that the flaking of the flints was undoubtedly due to natural pressure or percussion and therefore not indicative of human handiwork. Since the publication of Mr. Harrison’s discoveries, a number of pre-palaeolithic implements which seem to link up the primitive Kentian implements with the later palaeoliths, have been found in various Pliocene and early Pleistocene deposits in East Anglia, and these specimens, though accepted by an ever-widening circle of prehistorians, have in their turn been regarded by certain investigators as representing the work of nature. It will thus be seen that the science of prehistory has advanced only by slow and somewhat painful steps, and it may be of interest to enquire into the causes of this tardy progress.

The prolonged and heated controversies which have inevitably followed any new discoveries of flaked flints tending to extend the antiquity of the human race, indicate clearly that the acceptance or non-acceptance of these specimens has not been actuated by any well established knowledge of the differences exhibited by flints flaked by man or by the unguided forces of nature.

If such knowledge had existed the controversies which raged round the neoliths and palaeoliths, and are now being conducted in regard to the pre-palaeoliths, would either have not occurred at all, or, if commenced, would have been of a less prolonged and heated character. But in the absence of definite scientific data, other and less satisfactory means for arriving at a decision had to be employed. A prehistorian expressed himself to be in favour of accepting or not accepting any given flaked flints, simply by reason of his preconceived views and personal prejudices, and many present day investigators are, it is feared, still swayed by such unscientific influences.

PRE-PAL.EOLITHIC MAN.

In the long run what is known as “ common sense ” prevailed in regard to the neoliths and palaeoliths, and there seems but little doubt that the pre-palseoliths will also be finally accepted on the same grounds ; but the processes of common sense are slow and not necessarily scientifically adequate, and other and more satisfactory means of determining whether a flint has been flaked by man or by nature ought to be available. It appears that the only method likely to lead to definite and satisfactory results would be to conduct a series of experiments in which flints would be subjected to the effects of fortuitous percussion, and pressure, and to critically compare the fractures so produced with others caused by a hammer-stone held in the hand, and used in the manner in which ancient man probably used it. It might be urged that it is impossible to simulate exper mentally, the effect of natural forces upon flints, but on the other hand it seems reasonable to suppose that fortuitous blows and pressure do not differ fundamentally, whether brought into action by nature or in experiments conducted by a human being. The “ mightiness “ of natural forces cannot certainly be imitated experimentally, but it has been ascertained that flints will only stand, without disintegration, a certain amount (by no means very large and easily equalled in experiments) of pressure and force of blows, and that, in consequence, when the natural forces in operation are too mighty, the flint must be shattered and reduced to fragments. The author concludes, therefore, that the experiments he has conducted in the flaking of flint are of value in this discussion, and though further researches will no doubt be "necessary before the problems connected with human and natural flaking are finally and completely solved, yet he 'feels that the results alreadv obtained may help to dispel some of the doubts^and difficulties, and thus place the question of the antiquity of man upon a firmer and more scientific foundation. It is proposed in the first place to tabulate and describe some of the details of flint fracture, to which reference will be made in the description of the experiments carried out. The nature of the experiments in which flints were subjected to fortuitous percussion, and the conclusions arising therefrom, will then be described, and finally in a like manner, the experiments in which fortuitous pressure was employed.*

A complete series of the flints fractured experimentally can be seen and examined in the Pepartment of Ethnography at the British Museum. (Bloomsbury).

CHAPTER I.

DETAILS OF FLINT FRACTURE.

Striking-Platforms. — When an ordinary nodule of flint is selected with a view to produce an implement from it by flaking, it is necessary, owing to the difficulty of removing flakes from a rounded surface, to break off a portion of the nodule, so that a flat surface is produced, upon which flake-removing blows .can be struck with precision. The flakes which are removed will exhibit, in the immediate vicinity of the point where the blows fell which detached them (known as “ the point of impact ”) a portion of this flat surface, and this is termed the “ Striking-platform.”

The Cone of Percussion. — When a certain type of blow is delivered in the centre of a flat surface of sound flint, and the portions of this surface surrounding the point of impact tapped gently with a hammer, these portions will generally fall away, revealing a more or less perfect cone of flint. This is known as the “ cone of percussion,” and is due to an inherent property in the flint itself to fracture in this manner. This peculiar method of fracture is also found to be present in some other substances, such as glass, obsidian, etc.

Positive and Negative Cones of Percussion. — ^When a flake exhibits just below the point of impact a conical protuberance, and the block from which it was struck a corresponding hollow or depression, the former is known as the “ positive ” and the latter as the “ negative ” cone of percussion. The detached flake may sometimes exhibit the negative cone and the parent block the positive, but that does not affect the validity of the description given above. ✓

Eraillures. — If a number of flakes removed by blows are examined it will be seen that many of them exhibit on their bulbar surfaces (that is the surfaces upon which the positive cone of percussion is visible), a scar, where a small and isolated flake has become detached. This small flake is apparently removed simultaneously with the detachment of the larger flake, but the exact reason for its removal does not appear up to the present to have been satisfactorily explained. This eraillure or “ mark ” is sometimes seen upon flakes removed by pressure. (Fig. 1, Plate 1).

PRE-PAL;EOLITHIC MAN.

Ripple Marks or Conchoidal Rippling. — Ripple marks, which are often seen upon the flake-scars of implements of human manufacture, and also upon those of flints flaked by fortuitous means (they appear to be more prominent and frequent upon the latter), are due to the tendency of flint under certain conditions to fracture in a conchoidal or shell-like manner. It seems that these conchoidal ripplings are somewhat analogous to the ripples produced upon a surface of water when some heavy object is thrown on to it. The water is “ jarred ” by the impact and ripples produced, and it may be that certain blows jar the flint and so produce ripplings on the fractured surface. Conchoidal ripplings are sometimes formed when a flint is fractured by pressure.

Fissures. — If a series of flakes or flake-scars is examined it will be noticed that their surfaces exhibit a series of fissures of varying length and width, which radiate from the point of impact. Some of these markings are easily visible to the naked eye, while others require a strong lens to discern them. It seems that their presence can be accounted for by supposing that when the flake is removed the flint is in a sense torn, and that these markings represent the tears produced by the cleaving effect of the blow. Fissures are sometimes produced upon a flint which has been fractured by pressure.

Truncated Flake-scars. — When the manufacture of a flint implement is commenced, large flakes are removed from the nodule of flint, the resulting scars of which in the further process of flaking get reduced in size or truncated. Thus it is possible to observe the remains of flake-scars which have been reduced in size, on various portions of the surfaces of many implements. These scars are termed “ truncated flake-scars.”

Opposing Cones of Percussion. — Under certain conditions a flake-scar produced by pressure may exhibit a well-marked cone of percussion at each end. This is due to the flint having been squeezed between two hard objects and the cones represent the points at which, respectively, pressure and resistance acted. These cones are known as “ opposing cones of percussion.”

EXPERIMENTS WITH FLINTS SUBJECTED TO FORTUITOUS PERCUSSION.

Seven or eight flint nodules of various shapes were placed in a sack and violently shaken about for some little time, and in such a

CHAPTER I.

manner that the flints were in almost continual collision. It was found that only the stones of a certain shape and conforming more or less to a wedge in form (the thin edge of the wedge being usually attacked) were flaked in this process. The rounded flints in the sack were not flaked, but escaped with contusion of their surfaces only. A careful examination of the flaking produced by these fortuitous means, and a comparison of it with that due to human blows, appears to show that there is a fundamental difference between the two methods of fracture. This difference is, primarily, the angles at which the flakes have been removed. The method adopted to ascertain the direction in which any given flake has been removed from a flint is as follows. A line is drawn down the centre of the flake-scar and at right-angles to the ripple-marks (these in many cases require locating with a good lens). Then two other lines are drawn, one on each side of the central line, and also at right angles to the ripple-marks as they curve upwards. The three lines are then continued to their point of junction, which point indicates the area upon which fell the blow that detached the flake.* (Fig. 2, Plate 1).

The correctness of this method can be checked by observing the direction of the small fissures or “ splits,” which gives an additional indication of the angle at which the flake was removed. (Fig. 3, Plate 1). Careful outline drawings were then made of the flints flaked in the sack experiment, and also of those shaped by human blows.

Each flake-scar was accurately drawn and the direction of the blows responsible for the flaking indicated by arrows.

When this was done it was seen that the flints from the sack had had their flakes removed at divergent angles to the edge of the stone (Fig. 4, Plate 1), while those fractured by human blows, had had them removed at a constant angle (Fig. 5, Plate 1). It does not appear possible that fortuitous haphazard blows would remove flakes at a constant angle to the edge of any flint, neither does it seem reasonable to suppose that any human flaker would go to the trouble of making a sharp edge by means of divergent blows, as the result would be much less satisfactory than one produced by the normal method. It appears then that we have here one good

* This method is adopted only when dealing with a truncated flake, when the actual bulbar cavity is present such a method is not needed.

PRE-PAL^OLITHIC MAN.

and simple means of distinguishing between the work of man and of nature.*

A further examination of the specimens fractured in the sack experiment demonstrated that the flakes which had been removed differed in appearance from those due to human blows. This difference being : —

(a) The “ squatness ” of the fortuitous flakes as compared with those removed by human agency. (Fig. 6, Plate 1).

(b) The fact that the former had cut deeper into the flint, causing a step or ledge to appear at the point of their final separation from the parent block (Fig. 6, Plate 1) and

(c) The occurrence of numerous prominent ripple-marks upon nearly all of the flake-scars produced by fortuitous blows, as compared with their comparative scarcity upon the “ human ” flakes. (Fig. 6, Plate 1).

The explanation of these differences may be explained as follows : —

In intentional human-flaking, a flat striking platform is produced, and blows are delivered on one or other side of this platform, and in such manner that the flakes removed are generally the reverse of squat, being of greater length than width, and thinnest at the point of their final separation from the parent block. (Fig. 7, Plate 1).

Such flakes are also generally free from prominent ripple-marks, due, in the author’s opinion, to the fact, that the blows which detached them were delivered almost vertically to the striking platform.

In flaking produced by fortuitous percussion, the great majority of the blows fall apparently not upon the side of the edge of the flint, but almost directly upon the edge itself, and it is known that blows so delivered remove flakes squat in form and productive of a step or ledge at the point of their final separation from the parent block.

It has been ascertained, that consistently to remove flakes exhibiting prominent ripple marks upon their surfaces, it is necessary to strike the flint an oblique blow. As has already been mentioned,

♦ The author has examined and made flaking-diagrams of a large number of flints found upon sea-beaches, and the flakes removed from these specimens by fortuitous battering are at markedly divergent angles.

Chapter I.

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Fig. 8.

Chapter I.— continued.

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CHAPTER I.

a blow delivered vertically to a flint surface will remove a flake almost devoid of ripple marks, and it is supposed that such_^a blow has less jarring effect upon the flint, and consequently produces less rippling of the fractured surface, than one delivered in an oblique direction. The explanation of the frequent occurrence of prominent ripple marks upon fortuitous flakes, and their comparative scarcity upon those produced by human blows, may be as follows. It may be assumed that there are 180 angles at which a flake may be removed from any given length of edge, but it is only more or less vertical blows, delivered at a few of the higher angles, that will remove flakes exhibiting insignificant ripple-marks. I'hus in fortuitous, haphazard blows the chances are that the greater number of blows will be delivered at the lower angles, which are oblique to the edge of the flint, and as has been shewn, such blows remove flakes exhibiting prominent ripple marks upon their surfaces. It seems then, that m the shape of the flakes, their character at the point of final separation from the parent block, and the presence or absence of prominent ripple marks upon their surfaces afford further criteria for determining whether any particular series of flints has been flaked by man or by nature.*

It was noticed that the edges of all the wedge-shaped stones fractured in the sack experiment, showed a tendency to assume a sinuous outline due to blows having fallen upon either side of these edges.

The majority of the stones exhibited this sinuosity in an incomplete manner, but one specimen showed a markedly sinuous edge 4|-in. in length. A critical examination (based upon the tests already described in this chapter) of the flaking to be seen upon this flint, demonstrated clearly its natural origin, but another characteristic of the flaking was detected which seems to still further differentiate it from the work of man. It was found that the edge of this flint though only 4^ inches in length exhibited seventeen truncated flake-scars. (Fig. 8, Plate 1).

On the other hand an examination of various neolithic and palaeolithic implements with sinuous edges, demonstrated that the average number of truncated flake-scars on an edge 7 inches long is only six.

* In arriving at a decision it is necessary to examine not less than twenty or thirty specimens. A lesser quantity examined might lead to erroneous conclusions.

PRE-PAL^OLITHIC MAN.

The explanation of the greater number of truncated flake-scars upon an edge produced by fortuitous blows, as compared with one formed by liuman agency, may be, that in the former case the rain of blows is almost continuous and the flint is continually being reflaked and truncated flake-scars formed. It is, however, somewhat difflcult to imagine^ any ^ human flaker being so inept at his work as to be compelled to form ^seventeen truncated flake-scars in the production of an edge 4|-in. in length.

The author considers therefore that the proportion of truncated flake-scars upon a flint may furnish a further criterion for the determination of human as against natural flaking.* Various other experiments in fortuitous percussion, such as the hurling of a flint upon others, lying on the ground, were carried out, and the results found to be similar to those obtained in the sack experiment.

EXPERIMENTS WITH FLINTS SUBJECTED TO THE EFFECTS OF FORTUITOUS PRESSURE.

Experiments were conducted with an adapted letter-press, and a differential screw-press, with which considerable pressure was obtained.

It was found that when a suitably shaped stone was placed upon the floor of the press, and another smaller stone placed on the top of it and near its edge, a flake could be removed from the lowermost flint by forcing the ram of the press down upon the uppermost. The flake-scars so produced exhibited “opposing cones of percussion, “(Fig. 9, Plate 2) due to the pressure upon the upper portion of the flint being equalled by the resistance afforded by the floor of the press. The presence of a cone of percussion at each end of these flake-scars differentiates them from those detached by human blows, on which only one bulb of percussion is visible. When a duster was placed on the floor of the press, so that the flint rested upon a soft base,it was found that a flake could be removed but only with the exertion of considerably more pressure than was needed m the former case. It was noticed also that such flakes, exhibited only one cone of percussion, at the point where the small upper stone impinged upon the flint, as is the case of flakes removed by human blows. The majority of these

* In the re-sharpening of many neolithic scrapers and Mousterian (palajolithic racloirs) a number of small truncated flake-scars were produced, but these are not of the same order, or comparable with the truncated flakes described above.

CHAPTER I.

cones of percussion however are flat and appear to be only partly developed, and in this respect they differ from the majority of cones of percussion produced by human blows. Pressure flakes, too, seldom exhibit well marked eraillures, while the fissures and ripple marks, if present, are of a different order from those present upon humanly-struck flints.

These differences are readily observable when a- representative series of each kind of flake is put out for examination, and appear to be due to the different nature of the two fracturing forces. The human flaker is able to guide the line of fracture, within limits, m any direction he pleases, while in the case of pressure the flint is squeezed until it can stand the strain no longer, and finally fractures along the line of least resistance. Future investigations may perhaps modify this explanation, but at present the author regards it as affording a likely reason for the difference, which undoubtedly exists, between flakes removed by pressure and those detached by human blows. Experiments were also conducted in which a hard resistant stone was placed upon the floor of the press, and another with a sharp edge placed against it in such manner, that the descending ram would cause this sharp edge to move under pressure over the surface of the other specimen. By this means a flaked hollow was produced in the sharp edge of the uppermost stone.* Several of these hollows were produced and compared with others formed by human blows. This comparison demonstrated that there was a marked difference in the appearance of the two series of hollows. It appears that when the sharp-edged flint is being moved under pressure over the surface of the underlying stone very thin flakes or scalings are detached. This is due apparently to the fact that the pressure is able only to attack a very narrow area of the edge of the moving stone and in consequence only very thin flakes are removed.

In flaking produced by human blows, it is impossible to strike so near to the edge of the flint as to remove flakes as thin as those detached by pressure and a hollow flaked by the former means always appears, and is more uneven and less finished than one produced by pressure.

* A similar result can be obtaineil by placing a sharp-edged flint upon another stone, lying on the ground, and turning one's heel round on them, under pressure.

PRE-PAL/EOLITHIC MAN.

The pressure hollows appear “ smoother ” than those of the other kind, because, the flakes removed being thinner, the ridges intervening between them are less prominent. (Fig. 10. Plate 2).

In the case of the human blows, which cut more deeply into the flint and remove thicker flakes, these ridges are correspondingly more marked.* (Fig. 11. Plate 2).

The foregoing experiments in fortuitous percussion and pressure have been repeated many times and the results found to be uniform in each case. It is hoped that prehistorians will be able in future to give more attention to the question of the natural and artificial fracture of flint, as affording the only means of arriving at satisfactory conclusions regarding the “ humanity ” or otherwise of the specimens which are the subject of their study. Mere speculations as to the capabilities of man or nature to flake flints in the remote past, are, in the author’s opinion, of little value.