Practical smoke prevention

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Contents

OHAPTER.

I. Colours and Densities of Smoke

11. Smoke prom Private Dwelling- Chimneys

Chapter I Colours And Densities Of Smoke

Of all public and personal questions of to-day this should be the first,-because it is a burning question in a twofold sense. Many have wished, and do wish to-day, that it was burnt out into nothingness, never to rise again ; but of such a prospect at present there is little hope. During the present century, right away from its commencement, increasing in intensity as time rolled on, it has demanded recognition from the Press, the patentee, and the public. The Press has written much concerning it, and much praise is due to those who have sacrificed their time and talent and money in trying to solve this question. The ventilation of the subject has compelled men to think about it, and inspired them to determine, if possible, to discover some means by which to remedy the evil.

The patentee mjtkes his advent on the scene of

action, and says he will very soon put matters right.

He, too, soon finds out that the task he has undertaken

is an arduous one, and difficult withal. Many such,

having started on the question fairly well off*, have had

to discontinue, poorer, but wiser men. Such persons

n are deserving of commendation in trying to do something for the public benefit, although at the same time trying to benefit themselves. The public has taken an interest in this question. Some have said there ought to be no smoke, and if they had their way all smoke would be suppressed. If such people had their way, not only would smoke be suppressed, but a large number of the population would not survive. On the other hand, the public in general have done much by agitation in bringing it nearer solution, and we would say to them, continue in the crusade until a satisfactory settlement is brought about.

(1) Shades of Smoke, — There are many shades or colours of smoke ; some say seven, some more, and some only one, and that black. I remember hearing a witness before a certain tribunal state that there was only black smoke, no other kind or colour. He was a man past middle life, yet said " he had never seen any other kind of smoke than black, either in country or city." I need hardly remark that such evidence was not accepted by the Bench. He was either deliberately perjuring himself, or he had gone about life with his eyes shut. There are many shades and densities of smoke, which deserve our careful consideration, if we are to understand this question, and suggest anything practicable for its solution. The following are a few : — Black, dense black, thin black, brown, dense brown, dark brown, light brown, bluish cast, orange, or yellow, dense, and light. There are many other shades and colours, too numerous to mention, each indicating a particular condition of working, which has to be considered in connection with the trade or process carried on. It would be the lieight of absurdity to generalise or summarise the whole, and say that every shade of smoke shall be stopped. It would simply mean the stoppage of commerce, and the ruin of the country. Our duty, then, is to examine the various shades, and, if possible, suggest practical means for their prevention.

(2) 78 Stnoke a Nuisance ? — To this question we are compelled to answer in the affirmative; in spite of shades, colour, or density. Much of it is like very many other things which are acknowledged to bq necessary evils. I do not contend for one moment that all smoke of whatever kind is necessary ; but say, on the contrary, that much, if not most, of the smoke emitted is not necessary, and can be prevented.

(3) I wo Kinds of Smoke, — ^For the sake of clearness, and the accomplishment of my purpose in these pages, I will assume that there are two classes or kinds of smoke : — (1) Preventable ; and (2) Unpreventable. I mean by preventable, thick black smoke, or un burnt ca rbon emitted, which, by the application of a little common sense, could be consumed, and ought to be consumed, and which would be very profitable to the public and the manufacturer. Then there is the unpreventable smoke — ^the smoke which has lost its

carbon constituents, which is thin when emitted from B 2 the chimney, yet at the same time vaiying very much in colour. These gases must escape from the furnace and be discharged into the atmosphere, and there are no practicable means of preventing it, only by putting out the fires. Th^re are some who consider themselves authorities on this question who say, " that this thin (light in many cases) unpreventable smoke ought to be taken into account," and say that if a chimney emits twenty minutes of this unpreventable smoke in one hour, this twenty should be divided by ten, which would make two minutes of black, preventable smoke, for which the sinner ought to be summoned. On the very face of it such an argument is untenable, for it is patent to every unbiassed mind that if you divide unpreventable smoke by ten times ten it wdU not make it preventable ; yet there are those who advocate this system of smoke observation, and say that isuch a system is sensible. Such a system if enforced would inflict a gross injustice on the manufacturer by trying to compel him to do the impossible, and punishing him because he did not do it.

(4) Fublic Health Act of 1875.— Section 01 of this Act says: — "Any chimney (not being the chimney of a private dwelling-house) sending forth black smoke in such a quantity as to be a nuisance," shall be deemed a nuisance liable to be dealt with summarily in manner provided by this Act ; and, further, that all furnaces and fireplaces must be constructed in such a manner as to consume, as far as practicable, the comtustibles used therein, having regard to the practice or process of manufacture.

There are three points in this section which control the legal machinery on this question: — (1) Practicability; (2) black smoke; and (3) the quantity to be a nuisance. Let us consider them for a moment in their order.

(1) Practicability. — Persons, trade, business, or process of manufacture must be considered first, that is if it is a legitimate one, and sanctioned by law, and the section does not enforce anything that is alien, or in the slightest degree calculated to hinder in anj^ process or manufacture. It is necessary to be very clear on this point, for there are so many people who think the Local Authority has power under the Public Health Act to suppress smoke under any conditions, ignoring practicability altogether. If such a power was in the hands of Health Authorities it would be most arbitrary and disastrous to the commercial prosperity of the country. The section, then, is very simple, and means that if a manufacturer cannot practically prevent black smoke without interfering with his trade, then he can emit from his chimney dense volumes of smoke, and the Court has no jurisdiction in the matter. At first sight the section may seem strange and against the public health, but on careful examination one cannot but conclude that it is both just to the manufacturer and to the public.

(2) Black Smoke, — We must understand that the

Act does not deal with any other kind of smoke butblack, no matter how dense or thick it may be emitted from the chimney. Black smoke is generally understood to be smoke through which you cannot see the light at the point of exit from the chimney, or smoke that is opaque, not transparent. All other sorts, colours, and densities of smoke are not under the Public Health Act considered a nuisance, therefore they are exempt from any restriction whatever.

It would be wise on the part of those who say hard things against the Local Authority for their inactivity and supineness in not suppressing smoke other than black, to remember that the Authority has no power to do it. If such facts were kept in mind we should have much less sentiment, and more common sense on the subject. I am not saying, nor do I wish to imply, that all Health Authorities have done everything they can on the subject; many have done next to nothing, while others are doing . all they possibly can. What I do complain about is the wholesale charges for dereliction of supposed duties which they have neither moral nor legal right to discharge.

(3) Such a Qvxintity as to he a Nuisance, — Although Section 91 says black smoke is a nuisance, yet it must be emitted in a certain quantity in order to be a nuisance. In plain English, black smoke may be emitted in small quantities and not be considered a nuisance within the meaning of the Act.

The Act does not say what that quantity shall be.

but leaves it lor the Court to decide the matter on the evidence adduced. The Court can in this way, by the evidence, ascertain the conditions of working, the difficulties, and the possibilities of prevention of smoke, and by these means whether such a quantity has been sent forth as to constitute a nuisance. This question of quantity has been considered by the various administrative bodies, who, after a very careful consideration, have fixed various limits or standards by which to work. In fixing these limits the nature of the various trades in cities and towns have been considered, and the limit has been made low or high accordingly. The following is considered by many to be a reasonable allowance under all normal conditions : — One boiler, 2 min. in the hour; two boilers, 3 min.; three boilers, 4 min.; four boilers, 6 min.; and so on proportionately. If the smoke from a metallurgical furnace is discharged in the boiler chimney, then the lowest limit would be 6 min. in the hour, even if there was only one boiler. If there were more furnaces, then reasonable allowance would have to be made. The quantity of smoke from heating furnaces must be considered separately, as the conditions of working are so diverse and difficult. For one class of furnace 6 min. in the hour for one furnace would be reasonable ; for another, 8 min.; and for another, 10 min. Where there are a large number of furnaces going into the same chimney, then the limit would have to be fixed accordingly. If the abovementioned limits are exceeded, then a nuisance exists.

anJ proceedings follow for the abatement of the said nuisance.

My long experience at making smoke observations has forced me to come to the conclusion that there is a very great amount of dense, and practically preventable, smoke made which is not black, and therefore does not come within the smoke section of the Public Health Act of 1875. This kind of smoke is emitted in various shades, and is an intolerable nuisance, yet it escapes the law because of its colour, in spite of its density and its practical preventability.

I trust the reader will not think me presumptive in making one or two suggestions on this particular point for the amendment of Section 91, which I would suggest should read thus : — " A certain chimney, not being the chimney of a private dwelling-house, sending forth ' dense ' smoke in such a quantity as to be a nuisance." The alteration is very slight, only substituting the word dense for black. However slight it may seem, and of little importance to the casual observer, yet such a small alteration would empower Local Authorities to proceed against makers of any kind of dense preventable smoke emitted in such a quantity as to be a nuisance, who at the present time cannot be proceeded against except it be black. This word black is one of the causes of the atmosphere of our large cities and towns being laden with unbumt carbon, because smoke-makers know full well that if they send out any other smoke but black there is no prospect of prosecution, and* they very easily change it from black to some other colour. The suggested substitution of the word dense for black would in prosecutions prevent a lot of conflicting evidence as to colour in examination and cross-examination, and would also make it much easier to obtain convictions and penalties for unnecessary smoke. Looking at both sides of the question, we can safely say it would inflict no hardship or injustice on the manufacturer, but would only compel him to prevent the emission of unnecessary smoke, which would be to his advantage and to the advantage of the public health. I hope the day is not very far distant when our Legislature will see the advisability of making the suggested or similar amendments, which will embrace all preventable smoke in every-day working — it would prove very satisfactory.

Chapter II. Smoke From Private Dwelling-house Chimneys

This class of chimney is exempt from the smoke section of the Public Health Act. If we ventured to ask why, the answer would be, " Because they rarely or never emit black smoke." This is largely, if not wholly true, yet many chimneys turn out quantities of smoke which is beyond question a nuisance. The amount of smoke poured out from these chimneys in the aggregate is something enormous. If the reader desires proof, let him ascend some hill early on Sunday morning, and see to what extent the atmosphere is fouled when the populace are lighting the fires of dwelling-houses. I feel sure it will be a revelation, and will compel one to confess that all the smoke does not come from boilers and furnaces. Take a city like Sheffield, for instance, with its hundreds of thousands of fireplaces going daily, each emitting, say, only a thin brown smoke. What will the whole amount to ? If it were possible to put closely together the particles of smoke emitted from the whole, say, in one day, we should be amazed at the amount of volume — sufficient, we should think, to put part of Sheffield in darkness ; and this is taking place on the Sunday, when the boilers and furnaces have ceased from smoking, and the inspectors are at rest.

Looking fairly at the facts of this question, we must, to be honest, say that chimneys of dwelling-houses are partly responsible for the pollution of our atmosphere, and until we have a better system of heating our houses, and cooking our food, the nuisance will continue in a larger or lesser degree, unless we dispense with fires altogether.

Is there no practical means (under the present system of fireplaces) by which some of the smoke might be prevented? To such a question I say "Yes," but the amount is beyond our power to tabulate. This question of smoke and heat from dwelling-house fires has been for many years, and is now, agitating the minds of mechanics. The fires being of a slow combustible nature, send. up the chimney unbumt gases which ought to be consumed, making heat to warm the house, and for other purposes. Great are the diflBculties which confront would-be reformers in attempting a solution. Various methods of constructing the brickwork of the fireplace have been resorted to, viz., less area, sloping forward from the back, various classes of bricks set in different position to separate the particles, and at the same time igniting them by the heat retained in the said brick. Metal boxes have been placed in the chimney, and other contrivances, to catch the gases and combust them, regulating the required draught, so preventing some of the smoke which has been convei-ted into heat, and used for the purposes desired. Very much has been attempted in this direc tion, but very little done toward a satisfactory solution. Until some practical, simple system, which can be universally adopted, of dealing with this class of fireplace is introduced, it is the duty of every hou3eholder to play his part in preventing as much smoke as possible, by putting on the fire smaller quantities of coal, which means more heat in the house, less coal consumed, and a little less smoke. This will mean a little more labour on the part of those attending to the fires ; but the results will be most gratifying, when the individual littles are totalled in our large cities and towns.

CHAPTER IIT.

BLACK SMOKE FROM STEAM BOILERS.

It has become quite proverbial with men of a mechanical turn of mind, and many not mechanical (the latter the larger number), to say that all black smoke at all times can be prevented from steam boilers. To these we would say that such a statement is very much easier made than corroborated. I do not desire to deny that under ordinary conditions black smoke can be prevented, but there are at times extraordinary conditions which make prevention impossible (I shall deal with them later on), and these must not be ignored when considering (even with boilers) the practical solution. I have not the slightest desire in these columns to^ overstate or understate the truth; my object is to place before the reader the facts as I have found them, and not to b^ carried away by side issues into the sea of sentimentality.

Different Hinds of Steam Boilers. — It will be unnecessary to say much on the kind, class, size, shape, and structure of the very many boilers for generating steam in use at the present time. If I were to start on such a subject there would be sufficient matter on boilers alone to fill a large volume, but I would just say on behalf of 95 per cent, of the Sanitary- Inspectors (who cannot be expected to possess mechanical knowledge, but who have in their duties to deal with this question), that when I speak of steam boilers I mean Lancashire boilers, which are the most popular, and are known as double-tubed boilers, horizontal. The Cornish boiler is similar to the Lancashire, with the exception of only having one tube, and not two. Then there is the cylinder and €gg-ended boilers, which are a very old type, and are rapidly going out of use. There are also many kinds of vertical boilers. For instance, the marine class, which is becoming very popular owing to their occupying less space than Lancashire and similar boilers, while many claim also for them, with induced draught, greater evaporative power. Many other types of vertical boilers are used at temporary work because of their portability. There are ako a large number of vertical boilers or coppers, as some call them, which are used chiefly in breweries for boiling the liquor. The construction is somewhat similar to other upright boilers, and the furnaces are practically worked like other boiler furnaces. I will assume that it is unnecessary to deal further in detail with boilers, as the leader will probably be in possession of all the working particulars connected therewith; but should he desire information regarding steam boilers, he may easily obtain it from books on the construction and working of boilers, as it would be a little outside the scope of the subjectmatter of these articles to go further into the •question.

Chief Causes of Black Smoke Jromii Steam Boilers. — Having looked briefly at the different kinds of boilers, ^e are now called upon to ask why is black smoke made in these boilers ? If there is disease, it is our •duty, if we want to destroy that disease, to find out the cause. If that can be done, the cure will most surely follow. What are the causes, then, of black smoke ? (1) Shortness of boiler power. To be under power means attempting to get out of the boiler more than is reasonable, and it is capable of doing, without detriment to it and damage to others. It is a most unfortunate position for any manufacturer to be in. It necessitates the undue forcing of the fires with damage to the boiler, the wasting of fuel, not having sufficient time for combustion, and the creation of a nuisance by the emission of black smoke. It may be .said, why do manufacturers place themselves in such positions of helplessness ? To such a question a lengthy aaswer is necessary, in order to consider all the relative facts. Let us look at a man so situated. He commences business, makes his calculations of the power required, also probable power ; and buys the boiler, which he considers large enough for everything. As his business grows, machine after machine is added; each is worked to its utmost productive power, but the boiler gets no bigger, strange to say, though the load on it has increased considerably. The result is he finds himself short of boiler power. There is no room in many cases to put down another boiler, and if room were available, his bdsiness is of such a nature that to set down his works for a lengthened period would mean the losing of his trade entirely. A position like the one I have attempted to describe is not an isolated one, but is more general than many people imagine. This shortness of boiler room is one of the most prevalent causes of black smoke. Various methodsmay be tried in the way of apparatus, but it will invariably be found to aggravate rather than amend,, unless the chief cause is removed.

(2) Defective Draught — This is another cause of smoke, and one which has until recently not received that attention which its importance demands. There may be plenty of room in the boiler for generating steam, but that will be of very little use if the draught is insufficient, which means slow fires and imperfect combustion. In other words, defective draught is shortness of draught, and consequent failure to produce the necessary heat in the furnace to consume the coal placed in it, in the time necessary to prevent black smoke.

It is a very great mistake when building a chimney to erect a low one, thinking it will just serve for the purpose desired, when for a little extra cost a tall chimney, say 120ft. or more, might be put up, which would be found at some future time useful in serving^

I other boilers or furnaces, which never entered the mind at the time of building. If the chimney creates too much draught it can easily be regulated by the damper, but if the draught is too little no damper will increase it. Artificial draught may be resorted to, but for uniformity of pull on the fires there is nothing to excel, or we might say equal, natural draught.

It is a big mistake to build little flues ; they are soon made up, are difficult to clean, and are largely responsible for smoke. The cry is often heard from the engine tenter and fii'emen, *' I have no flue room ; I cannot keep up my steam." This is a complaint which is far more constant than it ought to be, for everything is to be gained by having big flues, better draught, more heat, less labour, and less expense in flue cleaning. Small chimneys and small flues are solely and wholly responsible for defective draught, and this is one cause of black smoke.

(3) Common Coal, — We are quite aware that the very

best of coal, if not worked properly in the furnace,

will, as the firemen say, "make a lot of smoke." This

has been proved many times when using a coal full of

gas, and when there has been negligence on the part

of the man ; but, on the other hand, the using of

common coal, dirty, small, and almost gasless, means

the making of smoke in trying to make steam. The

cry is, " Look at what we have to burn." This cry is

too frequent amongst firemen, and there are very just

c grounds for their complaining when the quality of coal that they are expected to generate steam with is below par. If a fireman is compelled to use small and dirty coal, he is bound to emit a lot of black smoke in spite of every care in firing. His fires will become dirty, sluggish, almost dead ; he will be compelled to use poker or rake, and the constant knocking about of the fires will inevitably create a nuisance. The extra labour for the firemen is excessive, and he invariably finds, in spite of all his attempts to keep up his steam, that it drops, with the result that the works have to stand until the steam is got up again. Many manufacturers have found out beyond the shadow of a doubt that cheap, or low-priced coal, at the pit mouth is not cheap in the end, but very costly ; costly because of the enormous amount which has to be put through the boiler to obtain the results desired, costly by stoppages of the engine and machinery waiting for steam, and costly by creating a nuisance, owing to the consequences. Many means have been devised to bum common coal with satisfactory results, but they have in most cases failed, and many firms have gone back to their usual (bright nuts) class of coal, with the result that it has effected a saving of labour for the fireman, a saving in cost for the manufacturer, and last, but not least, the prevention of a black smoke nuisance. There is no doubt in the minds of men who are technically educated on the question that common or cheap coal is one of the causes of

Wack smoke, and one that figures very largely in our ^eat manufacturing centres even to-day.

(4) Insufficient Infoi^mation. — Insufficient information on the part of the manufacturer and the feeman is almost incredible, when we come to consider what has been written, said, and done on this •question ; yet, if we face the facts, we are compelled to confess such is the case, and the absence of this knowledge of the scientific system of firing is one, if not the chief, cause of black smoke. When we speak of the scientific system of firing, we mean the very best rules and regulations for firing boilers or furnaces, which are so simple, that even the most obtuse •of firemen may understand them and carry them out successfully. As to what they are, we shall explain them in detail later when dealing with the cures for l>lack smoke.

The manufacturer may be excused for not underrstanding the practical working of furnaces ; they have many other matters of business of greater importance, which absorbs all their time and attention, leaving this matter in the hands of their engineers, who in turn leave it to the firemen, who in many instances Are not properly informed, hence black smoke. For the fireman there is no excuse for insufficient information on that which constitutes his daily duties. If he desires, he can secure it, with little efibrt and with little cost ; but there seems on the part of many firemen a disinclination to obtain it. They no doubt

c 2 think with Shakespeare that "where ignorance is bliss, 'tis a folly to be wise." We are not implying, for one moment, that all firemen lack this essential knowledge. If we did so it would be grossly unfair, because theie are many who are well posted up in these particular points, and who take a delight in putting them into practice. To such we give that commendation which they deserve, but there is no disguising the fact that there are a large number who do discredit to themselves and to others, because of their lack of knowledge of their work.

Let us look for a moment at this class of man. He is put in charge, say, of three boilers. The foreman selects him for his strength and steadiness, and not because of any special knowledge he may possess, about boiler working. He has knowledge of boilers,, but very limited. He knows the water must be kept a certain height in the gauge glass ; he must keep the steam up to, say, 50 lb., and to do this he must throw the coal on the fires. That is about the extent of the information some firemen possess in regard to boiler working. There is no one to instruct them ; in fact> it is questionable whether many of them would receive instruction if such were ofiered. They have the opinion that they know sufficient, and no one can teach them more. Strength is very necessary for firing, but skill is more esvsential, and the class of man we have attempted to portray will either be compelled to inform himself on his work, or stand aside and make room for better informed men if insufficient information — one of the chief causes — is to be removed.

(5) Inattention to Instructions. — There is a class of man who is being constantly taught and told by the engineers and masters what he must do. He cannot plead ignorance ; he can only plead inattention to given instruction. Such negligence is greatly culpable, and ought to be treated very severely. There is often a certain amount of excuse for a man who does what he ought not to do when in ignorance, though he might have procured the knowledge ; but for the class of man in question, nothing will do him good but very drastic treatment. We do not desire for one moment to say he wilfully neglects to do his duty. It is an absent-mindedness or disinterestedness in his work, which, if not checked, becomes a habit w4th him, mitil one day he has his attention called to a nuisance he is creating, when he awakes out of his stupour or sleep, carries out these instructions he has so frequently received, and thus prevents any cause for complaint. Whilst it is necessary to know what is the cause of black smoke, such knowledge will be of no practical use unless applied in the desired direction. Occasional inattention (not general) will often get both master and man into disgrace.