The population problem; a study in human evolution

Front matter

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Date Due f^

Contents

CHAPTEE I

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(1) Problems of population fall under two headings — quantitative and qualitative ; the former have long attracted attention ; the latter have, until recently, only sporadically aroused interest. (2) Numbers were discussed in a restricted sense in Greece and Rome, but it was not until the sixteenth century (3) that quantitative problems were considered from a modem point of view when (4) a dense population was generally held to be advantageous. (5) This view was not everywhere accepted, and (6) the relation between numbers and the food -supply was from time to time discussed, and the position of Malthus more or less anticipated. (7) In 1798 Malthus pubhshed his book, which (8) was favourably received. (9) Neomalthusian propaganda, though not approved by Malthus, began early. (10) Darwin and Wallace were influenced by Malthus in founding the hypothesis of natural selection, and from 1858 onwards qualitative problems have come to assume an equally important place.

Chapter II

THE BASIS OF THE POPULATION PROBLEM : (1) THE QUAN- TITATIVE ASPECT 37

(1) The ancestors of man were once subject to the conditions prevaihng among species in a state of nature. These conditions are studied. (2) Reproduction, the necessity for which can be explained, (3) always consists in the fusion of two gametes, but (4) is accompHshed by different methods. (5) Whatever the method, most ripe ova are fertilized, though among lower forms failures may not be infrequent. A reference to the nature of (6) reflex action, (7) instinct, (8) intelligence, and (9) reason shows that, (10) whatever the stage of mental evolution reached among species in a state of nature, reproduction is essentially ' mechanical '. (11) The vast number of ova (12) is only partially called for by the fact that a certain proportion only is fertihzed. The vast number is necessary because (13) owing to the interdependence of all species a large proportion of the young of (14) both animals (15) and plants perish before maturity (16) and is determined by the sum of the dangers to which the young are exposed.

Chapter III Page

THE BASIS OP THE POPULATION PROBLEM: (2) THE

QUALITATIVE ASPECT 64

(1) In the chromatin of the nucleus we have apparently to recognize the physical basis of the inherited qualities which (2) take the form of predispositions towards the development of certain characters. (3) Difference between modifications and mutations. (4) ' Pure Line ' and (5) Mendelian investigations indicate nature and behaviour of latter on crossing. (6) Germinal change consists in the apparent addition, dropping out, or modification of ' factors ', the causes of which (7) are unknown, and are not due to the inheritance of acquired characters. (8) Owing to the death-rate being selective, different germinal constitutions are differently favoured, and thus (9) permanent change among species in a state of nature comes about.

Chapter IV The Population Problem Among Men .... 80

(1) The population problem among men has, owing to the evolution of reason, assumed in both aspects a wholly different form. (2) To follow the nature, causes, and results of these changes a sketch is required of human evolution — especially of social evolution. History only provides a partial record for a few thousand years, and (3) we are thus dependent for social liistory upon our knowledge of primitive races which may be applied to prehistoric races. (4) Outline of future chapters.

Chapter V

(1) We have to ask whether human fecundity has changed and what the effect of certain customs is upon fecundity. (2) It is not to factors influencing the male (3) but to factors influencing the • female that we have to look. (4) The length of the mature period increases with good conditions ; (5) the interval between births has decreased in mankind, (6) while the number at a birth has probably increased (7) owing to good conditions. (8) That human fecundity has increased is supported by other evidence, (9) including the number of children, and (10) was held by Darwin and others. (11) Polygamy has had no influence, but lactation, age at marriage, early intercourse, and development of fat adversely affect fecundity. (12) Calculations of possible increase.

CHAPTEE VI

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HIBIAN HISTORY 106

(1) The outline of human history can be roughly dated by (2) estimating the length of the geological eras. (3) Little is known as to the evolution of the Primate stock, but (4) the association of geological data, fossils, and cultural data give a table of human history. (5) Fossil remains of man before the fourth glacial epoch. (6) Neanderthal man in the fourth glacial epoch. (7) Numerous remains in the post-glacial epoch. (8) Putting aside eoliths, (9) we have Lower, JVIiddle, and Upper Palaeolithic cultures, followed by (10) NeoUthic culture and (11) the age of metals. (12) Putting together fossil and cultural evidence, we reach a scheme the details of which can be filled in by (13) our knowledge of existing primitive races with

(14) certain reservations.

CHAPTEE VII HUNTING AND FISHING RACES 135

(1) A survey of these races is undertaken to show the prevalence of factors bearing upon fertility and ehmination, and evidence of (2) pre-puberty intercourse, (3) prolonged lactation, (4) initiation ceremonies, (5) postponement of marriage, and (6) abstention from intercourse is given. (7) Evidence of small average size of family. (8) Among factors of elimination, abortion, (9) infanticide, (10) warfare, (11) feuds, (12) kiUing of old and sick, (13, 14) disease, and

(15) child mortality are investigated.

CHAPTEE VIII

(1) A similar survey of these races is undertaken, and evidence is given regarding the prevalence in America (2) of pre-puberty intercom-se, (3) postponement of marriage, (4) prolonged lactation, (5) abstention from intercourse, (6) small size of the family, (7) abortion, (8) infanticide, (9) war, (10) feuds, (11) disease, (12) and child mortality. (13) In Africa similarly regarding pre-puberty intercourse, (14) lactation, (15) marriage, (16) abstention from intercourse, (17) contraceptive methods, (18) size of family, (19) abortion, (20) infanticide, (21) warfare, (22) feuds, (23) disease, (24) and child mortality. (25) In Oceania regarding pre-puberty intercourse, (26) lactation, (27) marriage, (28) abstention from intercourse, (29) contraceptive practices, (30) size of family, (31) abortion, (32) infanticide, (33) warfare, (34) feuds, (35) and child mortaUty. (36) In Asia of the same practices.

CHAPTEE IX

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THE REGULATION OF NTOIBERS AMONG PRIMITIVE RACES 197

(1) The theory of Malthus has long been disproved, and (2) has been replaced by the modem theory of an optimum density of population. (3) Territories are strictly defined among hunting and fisliing races, and (4) among primitive agricultural races. (5) Among all these races there is co-operation in the search for food. (6) The principle of the optimum number holds good for all of them, and by the natural selection of customs, practices restrictive of increase come everywhere into use in the shape of abstention from intercourse, abortion, and infanticide. (7) Evidence of these practices is incomplete, (8) but shows that they are so practised as to keep numbers down to a certain level, (9) and, though they may be adjusted solely by natural selection, yet some semi-conscious adjustment may take place. ( 10) That adjustment should take place, a certain standard of skill is necessary on the part of those who set up new families and is ensured by marriage customs. (11) General conditions of savage life afford evidence that customs are effective. (12) There is no correlation between these practices and economic stages ; though evidence is lacking, the presumption is that some such practices were everywhere in use (13) not only among primitive but also among preliistoric races, (14) who have moved slowly away from the conditions prevalent in the intermediate stage.

CHAPTEE X

(1) These races fall under four sub-headings. For all of them the evidence is discussed concerning (2) disease, (3) warfare, (4) and child mortality. (5) In sub-groups 1 and 2 celibacy and postponement of marriage, (6) pre-puberty marriage, (7) lactation, (8) restraint from intercourse, (9) contraceptive practices, (10) size of family, (11) abortion, (12) and infanticide. (13) In sub-groups 3 and 4 pre-puberty intercourse and lactation, (14) celibacy and marriage, (15) contraceptive practices, (16) abortion and infanticide, (17) and venereal disease.

CHAPTEE XI

THE REGULATION OF NUMBERS AMONG HISTORICAL RACES 270

(1) Among these races, in spite of certain complications, the principle of the optimum number holds good. (2) The evidence for the first sub-group is too scanty to base conclusions upon. (3) Among the races of the second sub-group we see how the pressure is felt, and (4) we have knowledge of the factors at work, but (5) in

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India, China, and Egypt there is evidence that the factors are not effective, and that over-population occurs. (6) In the third sub-group, where the factors are different, (7) we can see in disabilities placed upon serfs, and (8) in difficulties, (9) restrictions, and (10) Poor Law provisions hindrances to marriage. (11) The system was generally effective, though over-population occasionally occurred.

(12) In the fourth sub-group there is no evidence of over- population ;

(13) the factors are rather different, and (14) pressure comes about by unconscious response to economic conditions. (15) Summarizing the position for all groups we find that owing to the great power of increase, customs restrictive of increase are always necessary, and (16) have taken various forms (17) with varying effectiveness. (18) Changes in qixantity are a result rather than a primary cause of historical events. (19) Neither migration (20) nor war is due directly to overpopulation, though the position as regards quantity may be an element in the situation predisposing nations towards migration and war.

CHAPTER XII

SOME MODERN PROBLEMS 308

(1) The recent increase in numbers was in response to economic requirements, and affords no ground for pessimism as to the future. (2) The density desirable may be considered from the point of view of moral welfare (3) and of national safety, as well as from the economic standpoint. (4) The importance of minor fluctuations. (5) Methods of limiting increase at the present day. (6) Different ratios of increase as between different classes, (7) between different races in the same country, and (8) between different countries.

CHAPTER XIII THE QUALITATIVE PROBLEM 322

We have to ask how far those changes which constitute history are due to germinal changes, and are therefore comparable to changes among species in a state of nature. Analysis of remaining chapters,

CHAPTER XIV

THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AMONG ANIMALS

AND PLANTS 325

(1) Observations show that environment and heredity are complementary one to the other. (2) Abnormal stimuli may produce almost any result, but (3) for each species there is a normal environ-

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ment, to certain elements in which marked responses may be made, though (4) generally speaking sessile organisms are far more responsive to differences in the environment than are free-living organisms. (5) Among free-living species in a state of natm'e closely related to man, modifications are not of great importance in producing variations.

CHAPTEK XV

THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT UPON MAN . . 336

(1) Among men there is no normal environment. (2) The effect of exercise, (3) of general conditions, (4) and of climate. (5) Huntington's theory of optimum climatic conditions. (6) The effect of food, altitude, &c. (7) Statistical results. (8) Effect of disease. (9) Evidence derived from twins. (10) Conclusion that modifications, with the exception of those produced by disease, are not of great importance, though of more importance than in the case of species closely allied to man.

CHAPTEE XVI

(1) Recent work in heredity leads to the conclusion that at the basis of all human characters lies a vast number of unit-factors ; but few have yet been recognized, and (2) we have to depend upon statistical data, which show that all mental and physical characters are inherited. Further discussion of the inheritance of (3) disease, (4) temperament, (5) instinct, and (6) intellect. (7) Conclusion.

CHAPTEK XVII

THE EVOLUTION OF PHYSICAL CHARACTERS . . .368

(1) Preliminary notice of certain dilKculties — cause of mutation, strength of selection. (2) During the intermediate period great changes took place, but (3) in general dm-ing the first and second periods the tendency was towards the evolution and preservation of certain types, (4) which is comprehensible when the conditions among primitive races are studied. (5) In the third period more variations have been allowed to persist ; disease becomes of importance. (6) At all times warfare, migration, and crossing have influenced physical characters, (7) Factors of possible importance other than selection. (8) Conclusion.

CHAPTER XVIII

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THE EVOLUTION OF MENTAL CHARACTERS . . . .385 (1) We have to inquire into the stage of mental evolution reached at different times. (2) After discussing evidence derived from fossils, (3) from the study of primitive races, (4) from Binet-Simon tests, and (5) elsewhere, we conclude that by far the greater part of mental evolution had been accomplished in Palaeolithic times.

(6) Conditions in the intermediate period strongly favoured intellect,

(7) but in the first and second periods there ceased to be any considerable premium upon intellect, (8) while, though at the opening of the third period some advance was favoured, later conditions merely allowed of the existence of greater diversity. (9) Definite conclusions postponed until tradition has been studied.

CHAPTER XIX

(1) The evolution of conceptual thought went hand in hand with that of language, (2) and has passed through a scries of stages.

(3) The products of conceptual thought are stored up in various ways,

(4) are transmitted by language and by the operation of suggestion and sympathy, and (5) are retained by habit. (6) In a relatively unimportant way tradition is present among the higher animals. (7) Tradition moulds the degree and direction of the use of mental faculties, and (8) is naturally selected.

CHAPTER XX

(1) Supposing other things to be equal, we have to study the influence of differences in fertiUty and contact upon tradition. (2) Fertility is a purely relative term. (3) The greater the fertiUty, the greater the incentive to increase in skill and to the transmission of skilled processes. (4) Since fertihty is relative there is a shifting of the centres of progress. (5) Contact varies in quantity and quality, and facilitates the transmission and encourages the formation of skiU. (6) Contact is hindered by isolation by sea, deserts, and mountains, and is facilitated by rivers. Importance of location and language. (7) Contact also influenced by economic factors which have brought about (8) the evolution from the segmentary to the organic form of social organization. (9) Thus the origin and transmission of tradition have been very greatly encouraged in the third period, (10) though certain influences work against the full realization of the organic type in modern communities. (11) Differences in economic organization are correlated with other differences in social organization.

CHAPTEE XXI

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THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TRADITION AND HEREDITY 437

(1) Definite conclusions are difficult to reach. (2) History in the intermediate period was due to germinal change. (3) The natural endowment of America, (4) Asia, (5) Africa, (6) and of other regions, (7) and their geographical features, (8) suggests that history in the subsequent periods was chiefly of the nature of traditional change.

(9) Though germinal changes are important they do not account for the outstanding events, though they have contributed to them.

(10) Lesser germinal changes colour tradition, but are not determining factors in history. (II) Known germinal changes, such as those produced by crossing, are less important than accompanying traditional changes, (12) of which there are many instances in the third period. (13) The direct effect of the environment is not negligible, and has influenced the course of history. (14) The cyclic course of civilization, which has been attributed to germinal change, is in the main due to traditional changes. (15) Tradition at the present day overlays the manifestation of mental characters in so gieat a degree that (16) differences between classes may well seem wholly traditional, but (17) psychological tests and (18) other evidence show that innate mental differences are present, (19) though it is difficult to appraise their value and the importance of modern differential fertiUty.

CHAPTEE XXII

Summary of the argument and of the conclusions.

APPENDIX I 483

Summary of evidence as to restriction of increase amongst Primitive Races.

APPENDIX II 488

LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED 489

INDEX 509

LIST OF ABBKEVIATIONS

A. R. B. E. =Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution.

A. R. S. I. = Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution.

Am. Anth. =American Anthropologist.

Am. Jour. Obstef. = American Journal of Obstetrics.

Am. Stat. Ass. = Publications of the American Statistical Association.

Ann. de Pal. =Annales de Paleontologie.

Ann. Mus. Congo Beige =Annales du Mus^e du Congo Beige.

Arch, fur Anth. =Archiv fiir Anthropologie.

Aust. Med. Jour. = Australian Medical Journal.

Biol. BioU. = Biological Bulletin.

Bull. Sac. Anth. = Bulletin de la Soeiete d' Anthropologie.

G. I. A. =Congres International d' Anthropologie.

Cent, fiir Min., Geol. iind Pal. =Centralblatt fiir Mineralogie, Geologic uud Palaontologie.

Coll. Mon. Eth. =Collection de Monographies Ethnographiques.

Eug. Lab. Mem. = Eugenic Laboratory Memoirs.

Eug. Rev. = Eugenics Review.

Oeog. Jour. = Geographical Journal.

Int. Arch. Eth. = Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographic.

J. A. I. = Journal of the Anthropological Institute.

Jour. Eth. Soc. = Journal of the Ethnological Society.

Jour. Pol. Soc. = Journal of the Polynesian Society.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. = Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society.

J. R. S. S. = Journal of the Royal Statistical Society.

Mem. Am. Anth. Soc. =Memoirs of the American Anthropological and Ethnological Societies.

Mem. Anth. Soc. =Memoirs of the Anthropological Society.

Mem. db Proc. Man. Lit. dk Phil. Soc. = Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.

Mem. Soc. Anth. =Memoires de la Soci6t6 d' Anthropologie.

Phil. Trans. = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. = Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.

Q. J. M. S. =Quarterl3'^ Journal of Microscopical Science.

Rev. Col. Inter. = Revue Coloniale Internationale.

Rev. d'Anth. = Revue d' Anthropologie.

Rev. d'Eth. =Revue d'Ethnographie.

S. I. B. E. = Smithsonian Institute, Bui'eau of Ethnology.

Soc. Rev. = Sociological Review.

Trans. Amer. Gyn. Soc. = Transactions of the American Gynecological Society.

16 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Trans. S Proc. N. Z. Inst. = Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand

Institute.

Trans. Edin. Ohstet. Soc. =Transactions of the Edinburgh Obstetrical Society. Trans. Eth. Soc. =Transactions of the Ethnological Society. U. 8. Geog. S Oeol. Survey = United States Geographical and Geological Survey

of the Rocky Mountain Region.

Z. G. E. =Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Zeit.fiir all. Erd. =Zeitschrift fijr allgemeine Erdkunde. Zeit.fur Eth. =Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic.

Zeit.fiir Morph. und Anth. =Zeitschrift fiir Morphologie und Anthropologic. Zeit. fiir Soc. =Zeitschrift fiir Socialwissenschaft.

I

1. Problems of population fall into two main groups — those connected with the quantity and those connected with the quality of the population. Considerations of the population problem are commonly devoted to one of these chief aspects to the exclusion of the other with the result that the relation between them is seldom appreciated. It is one of the objects of this book to show that all problems of population have the same origin. The development of biological knowledge in the last century, and in particular the discussion of evolution, have made it clear that the whole population question and all the problems arising therefrom have their origin in the fact that mankind has a definite position in the animal kingdom. In the next two chapters an attempt is made to set out the basis of the whole question in the light of modern research, and in the fourth chapter are discussed the nature of the various problems and their relation to one another ; first those which are connected with the quantity and then those that are connected with the quality of the population.

This was not, however, the manner in which the question was first approached. There was not, to begin with, an understanding of the zoological position of man leading to a growing comprehension of the problems to which it gave rise. From early days attention was particularly directed to the question of numbers. Between the fifth century b.c. and the eighteenth century a. d. — between, that is to say, the time of Plato and that of Malthus — opinions were often expressed regarding the desirability or otherwise of a dense population. The work of Malthus focussed opinion upon this point. In a restricted sense this problem can be solved without an understanding of the biological origin of the whole question, and the discussion which followed the publication of the Essay on Population has resulted in the general acceptance of a solution by students of political economy. In a wider sense the solution of this problem depends upon a comprehension of its biological origin, and it was not therefore until after the middle

JN, C. iSiaie College of the last century that all the problems connected with quantity fell into their proper setting owing to the work of Darwin and Wallace, both of whom acknowledged their debt to Malthus. The latter, though he did not in any way realize the fact, was discussing a point which is most intimately connected with evolution, and both Darwin and Wallace were influenced by their acquaintance with the work of Malthus in arriving at their explanation of the process of evolution. Thus from the time of Darwin and Wallace it has been possible to view the population problem as a whole, though the discussions of the problems connected with quantity have been pursued independently not only before but also after the publication of the Origin of Species.

Problems of quality did not arouse the same early interest. It is, of course, well known that Plato was occupied with this aspect of the whole problem ; ^ Koman authors also commented upon the eugenic bearing of certain practices. ^ In later days in a remarkable book Campanella dwelt upon the importance of good breeding.^ But the interest in quality was not, as was the interest in quantity, widespread or long maintained ; it was not until the origin of living species by evolution had been ge^rally accepted and some knowledge of inheritance had been gained, that problems of quality came to occupy anything more than the passing attention of mankind.* J. S. Mill and Buckle, for instance, both of whose opinions were formed just before the time when the importance of heredity came to be appreciated, deny that it is in any way relevant to the study of social problems.^

2. In the preface to the greatly enlarged second edition of his famous book Malthus stated that he had found many references to the subject of which he had not been aware when he published the first volume.^ He acknowledged that several authors had showTi themselves to have possessed a grasp of the ' principle '

1 On this subject see Roper, Ancient Eugenics. - Roper (loc. cit., p. 12)

quotes Seneca as follows : ' We drown the weakling and the monstrosity. It is not passion, but reason, to separate the useless from the fit.' * Campanella,

Civitas Solis.

* Mr. Roper in his book quoted above exaggerates the attention paid in early times to quality. He says, for instance, when speaking of infanticide and similar practices, that ' these barbaric eugenics . . . were concerned with questions both of quantity and of quality ' (p. 11). As will be pointed out later, these practices were in fact primarily concerned with quantity ; such bearing as they had upon quality was incidental.

^ See, for instance, Mill, Principles of Political Economy, vol. i, p. 389. Darwin commented upon this aspect of Mill's work {Descent of Man, p. 98).

" Malthus, Essay on the Principle of Population, vol. i, p. 5.

which it was the object of his book to demonstrate. Among these he mentions Plato and Aristotle. In these cases Malthus was too anxious to attribute the first enunciation of the ' principle ' to others. It was only owing to the very peculiar circumstances of Greek life that the problem ever arose at all. A consideration of the ideal city state involved the question as to what was the most desirable number of citizens. This point occupied Plato's attention, and in one place he deals with it in detail. There should be, he says, 5,040 citizens in the state.^ In the Bepuhlic he explained that the number of citizens was to be kept about the same by a strict regulation of unions. ^ In the Laws, however, no such system is advocated, and he discusses the possibility of a failure to maintain the number.^ He appears to think that various checks such as infanticide and ' inundations ' will keep numbers close to the desirable level ; if too great an increase takes place, then recourse must be had to emigration. It does not seem that the problem was ever approached more closely in Greek literature.

References to this subject by Roman authors are confined for the most part to laments over the infertility of the old Roman stock. That which drew the attention of the Romans to the subject was thus a peculiar phase of the problem, and the views expressed by them were in consequence usually limited to the search for a remedy for a particular weakness in national life. As we shall point out later, it is doubtful how far infertility was characteristic of all classes ; that it was not widespread seems incidentally to be indicated in the following curious passage fiom Tertullian in which he is led to express views reminiscent of many modern contributions to the subject. Tertullian is confuting the Pythagorean theory of the transmigration of souls, and argues that, if it were true, the number of men must remain unchanged. But, he says, this is obviously not so ; population continually increases. This leads him to refer to the state of contemporary civihzation. ' We find ', he says, ' in the records of the Antiquities of Man * that the human race has progressed with a gradual growth of population. . . . Surely it is obvious enough, if one looks at the whole world, that it is becoming better cultivated and more fully peopled than anciently. All places are now accessible, all are well known, all open to commerce ; most pleasant farms have obliterated

> Plato, Laws, v. 737. ^ piato, Republic, v. 460. ^ Plato, Laws, v. 740.

* This is apparently a reference to a work by Varro.

B2 all traces of what were once dreary and dangerous wastes ; cultivated fields have subdued forests ; flocks and herds have expelled v^dld beasts ; sandy deserts are sown ; rocks are planted ; marshes are drained ; and where once were hardly solitary cottages are now large cities. No longer are savage islands dreaded, nor their rocky shores feared ; everywhere are houses, and inhabitants, and settled government, and civihzed life. What most frequently meets our view is our teeming population ; our numbers are burdensome to the world, which can hardly supply us from its natural elements ; our wants grow more and more keen, and our complaints more bitter in all mouths, whilst nature fails in affording us her usual sustenance. In very deed, pestilence, and famine, and wars, and earthquakes have to be regarded as a remedy for nations, as a means of pruning the luxuriance of the human race.' ^

3. It is not until we arrive at the sixteenth century that we discover any considerable interest in the matter. From thence onwards references are very frequent. In a general way it is not difficult to understand how this comes about. The movement of thought at that time turned to problems of practical importance. The interest in questions connected with population was above all things due to the problems created by the rise and consolidation of the great European states. In some measure also the voyages of discovery and the foundation of colonies drew men's thoughts to these questions. It is, as we shall see, in the works of the new class of political writers and theorists, and in the descriptions of travel, that we find most references.^

These references take for the most part the form of discussions as to the desirability or otherwise of a large population. There is, indeed, often but little discussion ; the benefits of a large population seemed so obvious. Men were mostly of the same opinion as the author of the book of Proverbs, ' in the multitude of the people is the king's glory ; but in the want of people is the destruction of the prince.' ^ The reasons are not far to seek. A large population appeared to mean both power and riches. The advan-

* TertuUian, De Anima (Ante-Nicene Christian Library), p. 481.

2 The realization of the limitation of the surface of the globe — following upon the circumnavigation of the world — had no doubt an influence. The fact that the earth is spherical — or at least that it is not flat — (as a matter of fact it is somewhat tetrahedral) was of course known to Aristotle (De Caelo, ii. 14). It has been remarked that this conception was always present to the minds of the authors of all those speculations which have come down from antiquity (Bosanquet, Philosophical Theory of the State, p. 330). But it was not forced upon men's notice imtil it was practically demonstrated. ^ Prov. xiv. 28.

tage of a large population in supplying a large army proved most attractive and greatly influenced the authors of the eighteenth century.! It has not altogether lost its attraction for some people at the present day, as we shall have reason to notice in a later chapter. This simple view of the benefits of a large population coincided with the development of the mercantile theory of trade. Authors of this school of thought also concluded that upon the whole the larger the population the better. Protests against this point of view are, however, met with from time to time. Those responsible for this opposition to the prevailing opinion were influenced in some cases more by observation than by theory and in other cases more by theory than by observation. As instances of the former several English writers of the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries may be cited ; as instances of the latter several authors chiefly belonging to the later part of the eighteenth century. The views of the last-mentioned authors are often influenced by a conception of the relation between population and subsistence closely similar to that of Malthus. But they are not alone in their anticipation of his position. .From the sixteenth century onwards we find in passages dealing with population more or less clear statements of the Malthusian position. These authors, however, are not always led to an unfavourable view of an increase in population. Many of them, indeed, support the current view as to the advantages of large numbers. Nevertheless on the whole a consideration of the connexion between population and the food-supply is usually associated with a fear of increase. We may now review in more detail the trend of opinion sketched above. This will bring us to the publication of the Essay on Population.^