Political and Social History of Modern Europe.

Preface

This book represents an attempt on the part of the author to satisfy a very real need of a textbook which will reach far enough back to afford secure foundations for a college course in modern European history.

The book is a long one, and purposely so. Not only does it undertake to deal with a period at once the most complicated and the most inherently interesting of any in the whole recorded history of mankind, but it aims to impart sufficiently detailed information about the various topics discussed to make the college student feel that he is advanced a grade beyond the student in secondary school. There is too often a tendency to underestimate the intellectual capabihties of the collegian and to feed him so simple and scanty a mental pabulum that he becomes as a child and thinks as a child. Of course the author appreciates the fact that most college instructors of history piece out the elementary textbooks by means of assignments of collateral reading in large standard treatises. All too frequently, however, such assignments, excellent in themselves, leave woeful gaps which a slender elementary manual is inadequate to fill. And the student becomes too painfully aware, for his own educational good, of a chasmal separation between his textbook and his collateral reading. The present manual is designed to supply a narrative of such proportions that the need of additional reading will be somewhat lessened, and at the same time it is provided with critical bibliographies and so arranged as to enable the judicious instructor more easily to make substitutions here and there from other works or to pass over this or that section entirely. Perhaps these considerations will commend to others the judgment of the author in writing a long book.

Nowadays prefaces to textbooks of modern history almost invariably proclaim their writers’ intention to stress recent happenings or at least those events of the past which have had a direct bearing upon the present. An examination of the following

V

2751516

VI

PREFACE pages will show that in the case of this book there is no discrepancy between such an intention on the part of the present writer and its achievement. Beginning with the sixteenth century, the story of the civilization of modern Europe is carried down the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries with constant crescendo. Of the total space devoted to the four hundred years under review, the last century fills half. And the greatest care has been taken to bring the story down to date and to indicate as clearly and calmly as possible the underlying causes of the vast contemporaneous European war, which has already put a new complexion on our old historical knowledge and made everything that went before seem part and parcel of an old regime.

As to why the author has preferred to begin the story of modern Europe with the sixteenth century, rather than with the thirteenth or with the French Revolution, the reader is specially referred to the Introduction. It has seemed to the author that particularly from the Commercial Revolution of the sixteenth century dates the remarkable and steady evolution of that powerful middle class — the bourgeoisie — which has done more than all other classes put together to condition the progress of the several countries of modern Europe and to create the life and thought of the present generation throughout the world. The rise of the bourgeoisie is the great central theme of modern history ; it is the great central theme of this book.

Not so very long ago distinguished historians were insisting that the state, as the highest expression of man’s social instincts and as the immediate concern of all human beings, is the only fit subject of historical study, and that history, therefore, must be simply “past politics”; under their influence most textbooks became compendiums of data about kings and constitutions, about rebellions and battles. More recently historians of repute, as well as eminent economists, have given their attention and patronage to painstaking investigations of how, apart from state action, man in the past has toiled or traveled or done the other ordinary things of everyday life; and the influence of such scholars has served to provide us with a considerable number of convenient manuals on special phases of social history. Yet more recently several writers of textbooks have endeavored

PREFACE vn to combine the two tendencies and to present in a single volume both political and social facts, but it must be confessed that sometimes these writers have been content to tell the old political tale in orthodox manner and then to append a chapter or two of social miscellany, whose connection with the body of their book is seldom apparent to the student.

The present volume represents an effort really to combine political and social history in one synthesis : the author, quite convinced of the importance of the view that political activities constitute the most perfect expression of man’s social instincts and touch mankind most universally, has not neglected to treat of monarchs and parliaments, of democracy and nationalism; at the same time he has cordially accepted the opinion that political activities are determined largely by economic and social needs and ambitions; and accordingly he has undertaken not only to incorporate at fairly regular intervals such chapters as those on the Commercial Revolution, Society in the Eighteenth Century, the Industrial Revolution, and Social Factors, 1870- 1914, but also to show in every part of the narrative the economic aspects of the chief political facts.

Despite the length of this book, critics will undoubtedly note omissions. Confronting the writer of every textbook of history is the eternal problem of selection — the choice of what is most pointedly significant from the sum total of man’s thoughts, words, and deeds. It is a matter of personal judgment, and personal judgments are notoriously variant. Certainly there will be critics who will complain of the present author’s failure to follow up his suggestions concerning sixteenth -century art and culture with a fuller account of the development of philosophy and literature from the seventeenth to the twentieth century; and the only rejoinders that the harassed author can make are the rather lame ones that a book, to be a book, must conform to the mechanical laws of space and dimension, and that a serious attempt on the part of the present writer to make a synthesis of social and political facts precludes no effort on the part of other and abler writers to synthesize all these facts with the phenomena which are conventionally assigned to the realm of “cultural” or “intellectual” history. In this, and in all other respects, the author trusts that his particular solution of the

.1 Commercial High School, fdmnnton

Vlll

PREFACE vexatious problem of selection will prove as generally acceptable as any.

In the all-important matter of accuracy, the author cannot hope to have escaped all the pitfalls that in a peculiarly broad and crowded field everywhere trip the feet of even the most wary and persistent searchers after truth. He has naturally been forced to rely for the truth of his statements chiefly upon numerous secondary works, of which some acknowledgment is made in the following Note, and upon the kindly criticisms of a number of his colleagues ; in some instances, notably in parts of the chapters on the Protestant Revolt, the French Revolution, and developments since 1848 in Great Britain, France, and Germany, he has been able to draw on his own special studies of primary source material, and in certain of these instances he has ventured to dissent from opinions that have been copied unquestioningly from one work to another.

No period of history can be more interesting or illuminating than the period with which this book is concerned, especially now, when a war of tremendous magnitude and meaning is attracting the attention of the whole civilized world and arousing a desire in the minds of all intelligent persons to know something of the past that has produced it. The great basic causes of the present war the author has sought, not in the ambitions of a single power nor in an isolated outrage, but in the history of four hundred years. He has tried to write a book that would be suggestive and informing, not only to the ordinary college student, but to the more mature and thoughtful student of public affairs in the university of the world.

CARLTON J. H. HAYES.

Aftok, New York,

NOTE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author begs to acknowledge his general indebtedness to a veritable host of historical writers, of whose original researches or secondary compilations he has constantly and almost unblushingly made use in the preparation of this book. At the close of the Introduction will be found a list of the major works dealing with the whole period under review, or with the greater part of it, which have been drawn upon most heavily. And there is hardly a book cited in any of the special bibliographies following the several chapters that has not supplied some single fact or suggestion to the accompanying narrative.

For many of the general ideas set forth in this work as well as for painstaking assistance in reading manuscript and correcting errors of detail, the author confesses his debt to various colleagues in Columbia University and elsewhere. In particular. Professor R. L. Schuyler has helpfully read the chapters on English history; Professor James T. Shotwell, the chapter on the Commercial Revolution; Professor D. S. Muzzey, the chapters on the French Revolution, Napoleon, and Metternich; Professor William R. Shepherd, the chapters on “National Imperiahsm” ; and Professor Edward B. Krehbiel of Leland Stanford Junior University, the chapter on recent international relations. Professor E. F. Humphrey of Trinity College (Connecticut) has given profitable criticism on the greater part of the text; and Professor Charles A. Beard of Columbia University, Professor Sidney B. Fay of Smith College, and Mr. Edward L. Durfee of Yale University, have read the whole work and suggested several valuable emendations. Three instructors in history at Columbia have been of marked service — Dr. Austin P. Evans, Mr. D. R. Fox, and Mr. Parker T. Moon. The last named devoted the chief part of two summers to the task of preparing notes for several chapters of the book and he has attended the author on the long dreary road of proof reading.

IX

VOLUME I PART I

PAGE

Chapter I. The Countries of Europe at the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century 3

The New National Monarchies ........ 3

The Old Holy Roman Empire 10

The City-States 14

Northern and Eastern Europe in the year 150(/ 20

Chapter II. The Comjmercial Revolution 27 Agriculture in the Sixteenth Century ....... 28

Towns on the Eve of the Commercial Revolution . . . . .36

Trade Prior to the Commercial Revolution .,43

The Age of Exploration .......... 49

Establishment of Colonial Empires 55

Effects of the Commercial Revolution 62

Chapter VIII. The Triumph of Parliamentary Government in England . . 261

Conflicting Political Tendencies in England : Absolutism versus Parlia-

The Puritan Revolution 274

The Restoration : the Reign of Charles II 281

The “ Glorious Revolution ” and the Final Establishment of Parliamentary Government in Great Britain ...... 286

Chapter IX. The World Conflict of France and Great Britain 299 French and English Colonies in the Seventeenth Century . . . 299

Preliminary Encounters, 1689-1748 306

The Triumph of Great Britain: The Seven Years’ War, 1756-1763 . 312

Part III “liberty, Equality, Fraternity”

PAGE

Chapter XIII. European Society in the Eighteenth Century . 395 Agriculture in the Eighteenth Century . . . . . . . 395

Commerce and Industry in the Eighteenth Century .... 399

The Privileged Classes 403

Religious and Ecclesiastical Conditions in the Eighteenth Century . 406 Scientific and Intellectual Developments in the Eighteenth Century . 414

Chapter XIV. European Governments in the Eighteenth Century 430 The British Monarchy 430

The Enlightened Despots ......... 440

The French Monarchy 449

Chapter XV, The French Revolution 464 Introductory 464

The End of Absolutism in France, 1789 ...... 468

The End of the Old Regime : the National Constituent Assembly,

1789-1791 .... 479

The Limited Monarchy in Operation : the Legislative Assemby (1791-

1792) and the Outbreak of Foreign War 486

Establishment of the First French Republic : the National Convention,

1792-1795 500

The Directory (1795-1799) and the Transformation of the Republic

into a Military Dictatorship ........ 512

Significance of the French Revolution ....... 517

Chapter XVI. The Era of Napoleon 523 The French Republic under the Consulate, 1799-1804 . . . 523

The French Empire and its Territorial Expansion .... 534

Destruction of the French Empire ........ 544

Significance of the Era of Napoleon 573

Index (Volume I) 583

VOLUME II

Chapter XVII. The Era of Metternich, 1815-1830 .... 1 Revolution or Reaction ? 1

The Congress of Vienna and the Reconstruction of Europe ... 5

The Bourbon Restoration in France i . 14

The Bourbon Restoration in Spain 20

Reaction in Portugal 26

Tory Reaction in Great Britain 28

XIV

PAGE

Trial and Abandonment of Liberal Administration in Russia . . 37

Maintenance of Autocracy in Central Europe 41

Failure of Metternich’s Policies and Partial Triumph of Liberalism,

1822-1830 46

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte and the Erection of the Second French

Empire 150

The Political Unification of Italy 163

The Decline of the Second French Empire, 1860-1870 . . . 175

The Political Unification of Germany 180

Chapter XXI. Social Factors in Recent European History, 1871- 1914 211

“ The Era of the Benevolent Bourgeoisie,” 1871-1914 .... 212

Christianity and Politics 223

The New Science 230

Christianity and Science 240

The Social Problem and the Decline of Laisser-Faire .... 252

Karl Marx and Modern Socialism 253

Anarchism and Syndicalism . . 265

Chapter XXII. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 1867-1914 277 Political Reforms 278

The Government of the United Kingdom 290

British Political Parties 297

British Social Legislation ......... 307

The Irish Question 319

XV

Chapter XXIII, Latin Europe, 1870-1914

1. The Third French Republic .

The Making of the Republic .......

The Bourgeois Character of the Republic and the Repression

of Clerical and Military Opposition

The Political Groups in France . . . . . ..

2. The Kingdom of Italy

3. Spain

4. Portugal

5. The Kingdom of Belgium

Chapter XXIV, Teutonic Europe, 1871-1914

1. The German Empire

The Constitution and Government of Germany .... The German Empire under Bismarck, 1871-1890 The German Empire under William II, 1890-1914

2. The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary . .

3. The Swiss Confederation

4. The Kingdom of the Netherlands (Holland)

5. The Scandinavian States : Denmark, Sweden, and Norway

Chapter XXV. The Russian Empire, 1855-1914 . . . . The Reign of Alexander II (1855-1881) : Reforms, Reaction, and the

Rise of Terrorism

The Maintenance of Autocracy and the Prosecution of “ Russification ” under Alexander III and Nicholas II, 1881-1905 .... The Industrial Revolution in Russia and the Revival of Opposition to

the Autocracy

The Revolutionary Movement of 1905 and the Russian Duma, 1906-

Chapter XXVI. The Dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, 1683-1914

The Ottoman Empire and its Decline, 1683-1815

The Great Powers and the Dismemberment of Turkey in Europe, 1815-

The Autonomy of Crete and Loss of the Turkish Possessions in Africa The Progress of the Balkan Nations and the Attempt to Rejuvenate

The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913

Chapter XXVII, The New Imperialism and the Spread of European Civilization in Asia The Old Colonial Movement and the New Imperialism

PAGE

XVI

PAGE

The Partial Dismemberment and the Political Regeneration of the

Chinese Empire 560

The Awakening of Japan 577

Russian Expansion in Asia 586

Survey of the Rival Empires in the Far East . . . . . 592

Chapter XXVIII. The Spread of European Civilization in America AND IN Africa 600 The Europeanization of America 600

The Partition of Africa 614

Chapter XXIX. The British Empire 640 Self-governing Colonies 641

The Crown Colonies 657

The Empire of India . . 662

Conclusion 672

Chapter XXX. International Relations (1871-1914) and the Outbreak OF the War of the Nations 679

The Concert of Europe 679

The Hegemony of Germany, 1871-1890 691

The Balance of Power, 1890-1914 697

The Outbreak of the War of the Nations. 1914-1915 . . . .710

Appendix. Rulers of the Chief European States since the Opening of the Sixteenth Century 727

Index (Volumes I and II) 737

MAPS

VOLUME I

PBECEDING

PAGE

2. Medieval Trade Routes and the Age of Discovery , . 49

3. The Netherlands, 1609 97

4. Religious Divisions in Europe, 1600 165

5. The Germanies, 1648 229

6. Extension of French Frontiers, 1648-1697 .... 249

7. England and Wales, 1643. The Civil War . . .273

8. European Colonies in North America, 1688 . . . 301

9. India in the Eighteenth Century 317

10. The Thirteen Colonies, 1774 331

11. Rise of Prussia to 1786 351

12. Russian Expansion to 1796 369

13. Partition of Poland, 1772-1795 387

15. Revolutionary France, 1789-1795 479

16. The Italian States, 1806 543

18. Europe under Napoleon, 1810 559

VOLUME II

20. The Italian States, 1856 165

23. Central Europe, 1914 — Social and Economic . . . 215

24. England and Wales in the Nineteenth Century . .277

xvii

MAPS

PRECEDING

PAGE xviii

25. Ireland in the Nineteenth Century 321

26. The “Nations” of Europe in the Nineteenth Century , 331

28. Austria-Hungary, 1914 427

29. The Russian Empire, 1914 467

30. The Ottoman Empire, 1683-1800 491

32. The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States, 1914 . . 535

34. South America, 1914 607

36. The British Empire, 1914 641

37. Colonial Dominions of the Great Powers of Europe, 1914 701

38. The Mediterranean Countries, 1914 717

The story of modem times is but a small fraction of the long epic of human history. If, as seems highly probable, the conservative estimates of recent scientists that mankind has inhabited the earth more than fifty thousand years,^ are accurate, then the bare five hundred years which these volumes pass in review constitute, in time, less than a hundredth part of man’s past. Certainly, thousands of years before our day there were empires and kingdoms and city-states, showing considerable advancement in those intellectual pursuits which we call civilization or culture, — that is, in religion, learning, literature, po- Htical organization, and business ; and such basic institutions as the family, the state, and society go back even further, past our earliest records, until their origins are shrouded in deepest mystery.

Despite its brevity, modern history is of supreme importance. Within its comparatively brief limits are set greater changes in human fife and action than are to be found in the records of any earlier millennium. While the present is conditioned in part by the deeds and thoughts of our distant forbears who lived thousands of years ago, it has been influenced in a very special way by historical events of the last five hundred years. Let us see how this is tme.

Suppose we ask ourselves in what important respects the year 1900 differed from the year 1400. In other words, what are the great distinguishing achievements of modem times? At least six may be noted :

(i) Exploration and knowledge of the whole globe. To our ancestors from time out of mind the civilized world was but the lands adjacent to the Mediterranean and, at most, vague stretches of Persia, India, and China. Not much over four hundred

^ Professor James Geikie, of the University of Edinburgh, suggests, in his Antiquity of Alan in Europe (1914), the possible existence of human beings on the earth more than 500,000 years ago 1

xix

XX years ago was America discovered and the globe circumnavigated for the first time, and very recently has the use of steamship, telegraph, and railway served to bind together the uttermost parts of the world, thereby making it relatively smaller, less mysterious, and in culture more unified.

(2) Higher standards of individual efficiency and comfort. The physical welfare of the individual has been promoted to a greater degree, or at all events preached more eloquently, within the last few generations than ever before. This has doubtless been due to changes in the commonplace everyday hfe of all the people. It must be remembered that in the fifteenth century man did the ordinary things of Hfe in much the same manner as did early Romans or Greeks or Egyptians, and that our present remarkable ways of Hving, of working, and of traveling are the direct outcome of the Commercial Revolution of the sixteenth century and of the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth.

(3) Intensification of political organization, with attendant public guarantees of personal liberties. The ideas of nationalism and of democracy are essentially modern in their expression. The notion that people who speak the same language and have a common culture should be organized as an independent state with uniform laws and customs was hardly held prior to the fifteenth century. The national states of England, France, and Spain did not appear unmistakably with their national boundaries, national consciousness, national Hterature, until the opening of the sixteenth century; and it was long afterwards that in Italy and Germany the national idea supplanted the older notions of world empire or of city-state or of feudahsm. The national state has proved everywhere a far more powerful political organization than any other; its functions have steadily increased, now at the expense of feudalism, now at the expense of the church; and such increase has been as constant under industrial democracy of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as under the benevolent despotism of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But in measure as government has enlarged its scope, the governed have worked out and appHed protective principles of personal Hberties. The Puritan Revolution, the French Revolution, the American Revolution, the uprisings of oppressed populations throughout the nineteenth century, would

Xxi be quite inexplicable in other than modern times. In fact the whole pohtical history of the last four centuries is in essence a series of compromises between the conflicting results of the modern exaltation of the state and the modern exaltation of the individual.

(4) Replacement of the idea of the necessity of uniformity in a definite faith and religion by toleration of many faiths or even of no faith. A great state rehgion, professed publicly, and financially supported by all the citizens, has been a distinguishing mark of every earlier age. Whatever else may be thought of the Protestant movement of the sixteenth century, of the rise of deism and skepticism in the seventeenth and eighteenth, and of the existence of scientific rationalism in the nineteenth and twentieth, there can be little doubt that each of them has contributed its share to the prevalence of the idea that religion is essentially a private, not a public, affair and that friendly rivalry in good works is preferable to uniformity in faith.

(5) Difusion of learning. The invention of printing towards the close of the fifteenth century gradually revolutionized the pursuit of knowledge and created a real democracy of letters. What learning might have lost in depth through its marvelous broadening has perhaps been compensated for by the application of the keenest minds in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to experimental science ajid in our own day to applied science.

(6) Spirit of progress and decline of conservatism. For better or for worse the modern man is intellectually more self-reliant than his ancestors, more prone to try new inventions and to profit by new discoveries, more conscious and therefore more critical of conditions about him, more convinced that he lives in a better world than did his fathers, and that his children who come after him should have a better chance than he has had. This is the modern spirit. It is the product of all the other elements of the history of five hundred years — the larger geographical horizon, the greater physical comfort, the revolutionized political institutions, the broader sympathies, the newer ideals of education. Springing thus from events of the past few centuries, the modern spirit nevertheless looks ever forward, not backward. A debtor to the past, it will be doubly creditor to xxu the future. It will determine the type of individual and social betterment through coming centuries. Such an idea is implied in the phrase, “the continuity of history” — the ever-flowing stream of happenings that brings down to us the heritage of past ages and that carries on our richer legacies to generations yet unborn.

From such a conception of the continuity of history, the real significance of our study can be derived. It becomes perfectly clear that if we understand the present we shall be better prepared to face the problems and difficulties of the future. But to understand the present thoroughly, it becomes necessary not only to learn what are its great features and tendencies, but likewise how they have been evolved. Now, as we have already remarked, six most important characteristics of the present day have been developed within the last four or five centuries. To follow the history of this period, therefore, will tend to familiarize us both with present-day conditions and with future needs. This is the genuine justification for the study of the history of modern times.

Modern history may conveniently be defined as that part of history which deals with the origin and evolution of the great distinguishing characteristics of the present. No precise dates can be assigned to modem history as contrasted with what has commonly been called ancient or medieval. In a sense, any division of the historical stream into parts or periods is fundamentally fallacious : for example, inasmuch as the present generation owes to the Greeks of the fourth century before Christ many of its artistic models and philosophical ideas and very few of its political theories, the former might plausibly be embraced in the field of modern history, the latter excluded therefrom. But the problem before us is not so difficult as may seem on first thought. To all intents and purposes the development of the six characteristics that have been noted has taken place within five hundred years. The sixteenth century witnessed the true beginnings of the change in the extensive world discoveries, in the establishment of a recognized European state system, in the rise of Protestantism, and in the quickening of intellectual activity. It is the foundation of modern Europe.

XXlll

The sixteenth century will therefore be the general subject of Part I of this volume. After reviewing the geography of Europe about the year 1500, we shall take up in turn the four factors of the century which have had a lasting influence upon us : (i) socially and economically — The Commercial Revolution ; (2) politically — European Politics in the Sixteenth Century ; (3) religiously and ecclesiastically — The Protestant Revolt; (4) intellectually — The Culture of the Sixteenth Century.

The Study of History. On historical method: C. V. Langlois and Charles Seignobos, Introduction to the Study of History, trans. by G. G. Berry (1912); J. M. Vincent, Historical Research: an Outline of Theory and Practice (1911); H. B. George, Historical Evidence (1909); F. M. Fling, Outline of Historical Method (1899). Different views of history: J. H. Robinson, The New History (1912), a collection of stimulating essays ; J. T. Shotwell, suggestive article History in nth edition of Encyclopczdia Britannica; T. B. Macaulay, essay on History; Thomas Carlyle, Heroes and Hero Worship; Karl Lamprecht, What is History ? trans. by E. A. Andrews (1905). Also see Henry Johnson, The Teaching of History (1915) ; Eduard Fueter, Geschichte der neueren Historiographic (1911); Ernst Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie, 6th ed. (1914) ; G. P. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (1913).

Textbooks and Manuals of Modem History. J. H. Robinson and C. A. Beard, The Development of Modern Europe, 2 vols. (1907), a political and social narrative from the time of Louis XFV, and by the same authors. Readings in Modern European History, 2 vols. (1908-1909), an indispensable sourcebook, with critical bibhographies ; Ferdinand Schevill, A Political History of Modern Europe from the Reformation to the Present Day (1907) ; T. H. Dyer, A History of Modern Europe from the Fall of Constantinople, 3d ed. revised and continued to the end of the nineteenth century by i\rthur Hassall, 6 vols. (1901), somewhat antiquated but still valuable for its vast store of political facts ; Victor Duruy, History of Modern Times from the Fall of Constantinople to the French Revolution, trans. by E. A. Grosvenor (1894), verbose and somewhat uncritical, but usable for French history. More up-to-date series of historical manuals are now appearing or are projected by Henry Holt and Company under the editorship of Professor C. H. Haskins, by The Century Company under Professor G. L. Burr, by Ginn and Company under Professor J. H. Robinson, and by Houghton Mifflin Company under Professor J. T. Shotwell : such of these volumes as have appeared are noted in the appropriate chapter bibliographies following. The Macmillan Company has published Periods of

XXIV

European History, 8 vols. (1893-1901), under the editorship of Arthur Hassall, of which the last five volumes treat of political Europe from 1494 to 1899 ; and a more elementary political series, Six Ages of European History, 6 vols. (1910), under the editorship of A. H. Johnson, of which the last three volumes cover the years from 1453 to 1878. Much additional information is obtainable from such popular series as Story of the Nations (1886 sqq.), Heroes of the Nations (1890 sqq.), and Home University Library, though the volumes in such series are of very unequal merit. Convenient chronological summaries are: G. P. and G. H. Putnam, Tabular Views of Universal History (1914) ; Carl Ploetz, Manual of Universal History, trans. and enlarged by W. H. Tillinghast, new edition (1915); Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates, 25th ed. (1911); C. E. Little, Cyclopedia of Classified Dates (1900) ; Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XIII (1911). The best atlas — a vitally necessary adjunct of historical study — is either that of W. R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas (1911), or that of Ramsay Muir, Hammond’s New Historical Atlas for Students, 2d ed. (1915) ; a smaller historical atlas is that of E. W. Dow (1907), and longer ones are Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XIV (1912) and, in German, Putzger, Historischer Schulatlas. Elaborate treatises on historical geography: EHsee Reclus, The Universal Geography, trans. and ed. by E. G. Ravenstein, 19 vols. ; Nouveau Dictionnaire de Giographie Universelle, by Vivien de Saint-Martin and Louis Rousselet, 10 vols. See also -H. B. George, The Relations of Geography and History (1910) and Ellen C. Semple, The Influence of Geographic Environment (1911).