Photography for novices : the primus handbook

Front matter

ILFORD PLATES

Fop every kind of Camera at THE SAME popular Prices for ALL varieties.

ILFORD PLATES

Introduction

The intention in this little book is to describe practically the elementary processes of photography, in as simple terms as possible, avoiding theory excepting where absolutely necessary, and taking to the utmost extent what is known as the common-sense view of the subject.

Some of the methods advocated will probably be regarded by the critics as not strictly academical : the chemist, for example, may look upon certain chapters as superfluous, and the optician take exception to the brevity of our account of lenses. But our own early days in photography are not yet far removed, and we remember how many of the difficulties which we met with might have been removed by a plain statement of practice, and by avoiding the discussion of theoretical matters that merely act as stumbling-blocks in the first steps of the novice.

But though we have endeavoured to keep to what may be termed a “first year’s course,” nothing essential has been neglected, and no stone left unturned to instruct the absolute novice in those precise and detailed methods so necessary for success.

When we consider what charming results can be produced by the camera, how fascinating the pursuit of photography is, and in how many directions it may be usefully applied, we can promise those who are just taking it up, and turning over the pages of this manual for the first time, no small amount of enjoyment even in going through the A B C of the subject.

When the rudiments have been mastered and a moderate degree of proficiency attained, then the amount of pleasure will still further increase, and the profit in a dozen different ways can scarcely be reckoned. It is no exaggeration to state that the knowledge and practice of photography adds greatly to the value of human life.

Chapter I. The Apparatus

Choice of camera. — in most cases the would-be photographer purchases his camera before reading anything about the subject. He is fascinated, no doubt, by some excellent outfit at a low price, and buys it without regard to its particular style or adaptability for his purpose. After all, the matter is not of vital importance, since it can be subsequently remedied after a little experience has been gained, when the novice has had time to decide whether or not photography is to become the hobby of a lifetime or of any considerable portion thereof. But if the novice should purchase his text-book before going in for his outfit, or in other words get the horse before the cart, then let us advise him to buy what is known as a stand camera, in preference to the seductive and more portable kind carried in the hand. The chief reason for this counsel is that the hand camera has no focussing screen, where the image or picture of the subject or view to be taken can be seen in its reduced size before the plate is exposed upon it. The stand camera possesses this very desirable arrangement, together with several other advantages from the novice’s point of view, though the only other to which we propose to draw attention is the stand. When a camera is on a stand it remains rigid; when held in the hand, care is needed in making the exposure, or a slight movement may spoil all.

It will be easy to understand from the above statements that there is an unbridged gap, bo to speak, between exposing the plate in a hand camera and developing the negative, across which the photographer must jump. He secs the view that he proposes to take in nature, and by means of a reflecting finder he has a very small image of it before him on the camera, so small, however, that it will be by no means easy for him to observe its details, and form

II an accurate judgment as to effective selection of point of view, etc. Whereas with the stand camera, as we have already stated, he can examine leisurely upon the focussing screen an image of the landscape having the actual dimensions of the plate he is going to impress it upon, hence he can carefully choose his point of view, move a little nearer or further away from the principal object, observe the details of the scene, and in other ways satisfy himself that he has done the best possible as to selection and arrangement.

When we come to the exposure, the stand camera again scores over the hand variety, for one can give any length of exposure from a fraction of a second up to an hour or two if need be. But even a clever photographer cannot give exposures of more than one-tenth of a second when holding the camera between his hands, whilst very few are able to work effectively at a longer speed than i-20th. The consequence is, work on a dull day, save in very open country, or in the darker realms of nature, as among the woods and copses, in glens, or again inside houses, is out of the question for the hand-camera man unless he can place his camera on some firm object or other, or on the other hand provide himself with a tripod. But if he goes to the trouble of including a tripod in his kit, he may as well go the whole way and at once possess himself of a stand camera, since the difference in weight of the whole kit will not be a great matter.

Hand Camera. — Hand cameras are capital instruments as constructed now-a-days, but the novice will probably not achieve the same degree of success right off with one as he would do with a stand camera. But as the embryo photographer will probably have bought a hand camera before he reads these lines, let us tell him what to do in order to become thoroughly acquainted with the working of the instrument before setting out into the field. Stupid mistakes have been made by the impatient, who could not find time to examine their apparatus before going on a holiday. Only a few days ago we heard of a fellow who brought back sixty plates from a tour, and took them to a dealer to develop. There was not an image on a single one of them ! The foolish man had never removed the cap from the lens !

There are numerous kinds of hand camera upon the market, but we take as a typical example of the most popular the reservoir hand camera, shown in fig. i. Note carefully the following instructions : —

Open the “ back door ” of the camera, which is closed by two small spring catches. The plate sheaths will probably fall out. If not, remove them, so that you can see right inside, and notice the mechanism which releases the plates and works from a little handle

Fig. I. Reservoir Hand Camera.

outside. Hold the front of the camera up to the light, and looking in at the back, observe the lens aperture, and how, when you turn the diaphragm button, the hole becomes smaller and less light comes through.

Press the shutter release, adjust it for time ” and then for instantaneous,” and notice as you turn the button which quickens the speeds at which the shutter will work, that a speed is soon reached when your eye is scarcely conscious that any exposure has been made at all. You must keep this point in mind when you are actually taking photographs, and not expect to obtain snap-shots indoors at all, or out of doors except when the light is good. After this preliminary examination of the camera, go into the dark-room and fill the sheaths with plates.* Put them back into the camera in the proper order, and closing it up, work the lever that releases them, and drop each one down successively until they all lie at the bottom of the camera.

You ought by this time to be thoroughly familiar with this movement, and commit no bungling when you are out in the field. Now readjust the sheaths (again in the dark-room), and you are ready to actually expose a plate. Go out into the garden or the street, select some bold object, and looking into the finder at the top of the camera front (shading it with the hand if necessary), make sure that this object is about the middle of the field. Be

* This must be done by non-actinic light. The novice should read Chapter II. » relating to the dark-room, before attempting these operations.

sure and hold the camera level. If you point it upwards or downwards the straight lines of the picture are almost certain to be distorted. Make every elTort to hold the camera perfectly steady whilst you are pressing the release. With regard to the speed of the shutter, do not aim at a high speed unless the light is exceptionally brilliant. For street scenes with moving objects about 20 feet from the lens, i-25th of a second will be about the right thing with the diaphragm aperture marked //22, on a bright day and using plates of medium speed. Now return to the dark-room and complete the development of this one negative before going further. In this way, having gone through the whole procedure experimentally, you will be far less liable to perpetrate those absurd blunders that often accompany the abut of the amateur photographer, and in some instances have resulted in a great waste of time and material without any good results.

Stand Camera. — If, on the other hand, the would-be photographer has purchased a camera with bellows and a tripod, in other words a stand camera (fig. 2), then the examination of it should be conducted more or less as follows : — Open the i6 camera out, and be careful not to break the focussing screen. The part which holds the focussing screen is called the back of the camera. It is supported in an upright position by two screws and brass bars. Be sure when setting it up that the screws are in the little niches of these bars, so that the back is perfectly vertical. If at any time when at

Fig. 2. Stand Camera.

work in the field you should have occasion to tilt the camera in an upright direction, in order to get in the top of a church steeple or any high building, be sure that the back of the camera remains perfectly vertical, otherwise your buildings will look like fig. 4, instead of as shown in fig. 3 (see opposite page). The focussing screen, with the framework which

Fig. 3. Swing Back Vertical.

Fig 4. Swing Back not Vertical.

Fig. 8. Wide Angle

Fig. 9. Narrow Angle holds it in position, is removable and reversible for oblong and upright photographs respectively. When changing from one to the other, take care to clamp the catches tightly. Now draw the front of the camera out, and fix it at the end of the grooves by means of the screws at the top. (In some cameras this operation takes place automatically when the front is drawn forward.)

Screw the lens in the flange. Take the cap off the lens, and if there is a shutter, draw the cord until the blind is open. Place the focussing cloth over the camera, and look under at the focussing screen, not through it. Point the lens towards the window. Turn the focussing screw until the window frame or the curtain is distinctly defined on the focussing screen. The image is always upside down. Put the cap on the lens, or close the shutter. Open the back of the camera by raising the focussing screen, and turn it over on to the bellows of the camera. Draw the cloth closely round the head, so as to cut off all light from outside, and if the focussing cloth is not a thick one, place a shawl on the top. Peer carefully into the camera for a minute or two, to ascertain if it is quite lighttight. The^ least opening in the bellows or i8 round the lens flange will be sure to spoil your work. If there is a nick anywhere, paste black paper or cloth over it. Mount the camera on the tripod and secure it tightly with the tripod screw. See that the screw does not project so far through the base-board of the camera as to interfere with the racking in and out when focussing. If it does, file or cut sufficient off the tripod screw to prevent this.

Next examine the dark slides, open them and draw the shutters of each in and out once or twice. If they do not work smoothly, rub the grooves with black lead or a soft pencil. If they are not numbered, attach labels to the outside of each, numbering each side, so that you reduce the danger of exposing the same plate twice. Push each slide in turn into its place at the back of the camera. If they do not slide in easily, use the lead pencil on the outer grooves.

Now you are ready for the dark-room, which is described in the next chapter. But before we take up that part of our subject, there are one or two other pieces of apparatus to be dealt with, so that their uses may be properly mastered by the novice. By far the most important is the lens.

The Lens. — About no part of the photographer’s apparatus does so much misunderstanding arise as with regard to the lens. The principles of optics are, of course, not simple enough to be understood in a moment, but it is mainly on account of the wrong way of describing lenses which has been the custom until comparatively recently, that novices get hold of erroneous ideas as to the working powers of a lens, and often fail to understand those essential characteristics which would make its use plain and straightforward.

In everyday language the lens may be described as an optical instrument for focussing the rays of light reflected from objects in a view, and throwing them upon a screen at the back of the camera, which screen is, after adjustment, replaced by the dry plate for the purpose of making the photograph. Photographs can be taken pretty well by a pin-hole instead of a lens, but as the pin-hole is much smaller than the opening of an ordinary lens, it lets less light through, and consequently a very much longer exposure is essential. A larger hole without a lens will not answer, because the rays of light become confused ; the lens plays the part of bringing them to a point, just as the pin-hole does, but it will do it with a much larger aperture, so that it becomes possible to convey to the plate a sufficient impression of light in a second or even very much less time.

Now there are two or three fundamental principles in regard to lenses that we must try to make clear to the reader. We shall do so in the simplest possible language, although it

Fig. 5- is quite likely the scientific optician may enjoy a covert sneer at us if this book should come into his hands.

Let us take a very common form of lens, an ordinary view lens, as shown in fig. 5. It will be seen that it consists of a sort of tube of brass, perhaps an inch and a half or two inches long. At each end there is a projecting rim or flange. Near the centre of the tube is a little mechanical contrivance by vv^hich the opening through which the light passes can be made smaller or larger as the case may be. This is called an iris diaphragm (see fig. 5). There are still a great many lenses on the market which have, instead of the iris diaphragm, loose stops of different sizes which are inserted in a slot ; but the iris diaphragm is very much more convenient, because it is a fixture, and there is no risk of losing any portion of it or leaving it at home, as in the case of the separate stops.

You will find that you can screw off the flange at each end of the lens tube. That at the front is simply to give a finish to the lens, whilst that at the back contains the actual glasses of the lens.

First, however, let us consider the aperture of the lens, that is, the size of the opening when the iris diaphragm is at its greatest extent. Now it is upon the size of the aperture yielding a clear image that the speed of a lens depends, and not upon any other detail in construction. As great care in making and a special quality of glass are required in producing lenses that will give clearly defined images with large apertures, one may say roughly that the larger the opening the greater the cost of the lens. Impress this fact upon your mind then — lenses having the same effective working aperture are all of the same speed.* We often hear men saying what a quick lens they have got, compared with Mr. So-and-so’s, and upon investigation the statement proves to be pure nonsense, for the effective aperture in each case is exactly the same.

Now to explain the use of the iris diaphragm. If we take a camera in which such a lens as the above is fixed, and focus an image of any object quite close at hand, say a tree in any landscape, we shall find that with the full aperture of the lens all distant objects will be blurred and indistinct, but as we close the diaphragm and make the aperture gradually smaller, we shall notice that although less light comes through, nevertheless there is greater depth of focus, as it is called ; that is to say, in following up the above experiment, objects in the distance can be brought up much more clearly. Thus we learn that the smaller the opening, the sharper and more general the focus. At the same time, it must not be forgotten that

* That is, provided they have also the same focal length. See a later paragraph dealing with focal length.

the smaller the aperture the longer the exposure will have to be. These are points which will be much better understood if the photographer has sufficient patience to go through with them in actual experiment. In the case of the man who possesses a hand camera with a lens in which the size of aperture has been fixed beforehand, he has little or no jurisdiction over his lens, so that the foregoing and succeeding observations will not have much interest for him. The only important thing to impress upon his mind is that in order to secure a fixed focus the working aperture of his lens has had to be reduced considerably. He must not expect, therefore, to get good photographs except under good conditions of light.

But for the photographer who uses a stand camera, there is something more to be said upon this subject.

The first question to ask is what sort of subjects is the lens required for, and in ninetynine cases out of a hundred the answer would be for everything,’' portraits, landscapes, architectural subjects, interiors and exteriors. What then is the most suitable lens for all-round purposes ? We may say that no one lens can possibly meet all these requirements, so the photographer must possess himself of a battery of lenses.

Casket Lenses. — These are actually to be had in what are called casket sets, that is to say, a little case containing a lens mount or tube with an iris diaphragm in the middle of it, and several small lenses of different kinds ready to be screwed into this mount. Some of the more expensive sets have six or even eight lenses ; but let us speak of the simpler and

Fig. 6.

cheaper kinds throughout our remarks, because for all intents and purposes a casket containing four different lenses supplies the photographer with all he needs. Such a set can be had for the modest sum of £2, and we might mention that many of the illustrations in this book have been taken with a casket sold as the “ Primus. ’’ Let us suppose the photographer has purchased one as shown in fig. 6. Examine the rims of the four loose lenses, and you will find figures marked upon the margin of each. These denote the focal lengths of the particular lens, and what that means we shall have occasion to explain directly. These lengths will probably be respectively 6, lo, 14 and 20 inches. Having fixed the flange into the front of your camera, which we will suppose is half-plate size, take the lens tube and screw in at the back the six-inch component — the shortest in your set. Next screw the lens tube into position in the camera, and putting your head under the cloth, focus upon some distinct object in the distance. If you are indoors, a building across the street or a tree in the garden will answer very well ; then, measuring the distance from the diaphragm of the lens to the focussing screen of the camera, you will find it to be approximately six inches. This in plain language, then, is the focal length of the lens. If you want to thoroughly understand the capacity of your casket set, take a negative now with the six-inch component in the camera. The field included is a wide one — in fact, a six-inch lens in a half-plate camera would be called a wide-angle, though the term is somewhat elastic. Now, taking out the 6-inch component, put in the lo-inch and so on, making an exposure with each one in turn. Probably your camera will not rack out sufficiently far to enable you to use the 20-inch lens singly. That does not matter a bit ; it will be used in combination, as we shall explain shortly. You will, however, have three negatives, from which it will be advisable to make prints for purposes of comparison.

You will then find that the longer the focus of the lens you use the smaller will be the field of view included, but the larger the objects in that field. To take an imaginary case : Suppose your view is of a row of houses a hundred and fifty or two hundred yards away. The 6-inch lens will probably include about forty of the houses; but they will appear very small in the photograph, looking like a narrow band across the centre of the plate. Putting in the lo-inch lens, you will very likely find that only about thirty of the houses are now in the field of view, but that they are at the same time appreciably larger. Likewise, in the case of the 14-inch lens, no doubt only some twenty houses will come into the field of view, but they will be very much larger in size.

Here, then, you have learnt a very valuable lesson in regard to lenses. You will have clearly understood by actual experiment that the greater the focal length of the lens the smaller the field of view included. What an advantage a lens of this kind is in actual practice ! You go out into the field and see some subject which strikes you as pleasing. You put in, say, the 14-inch lens, but, looking on the screen, you find perhaps that some graceful tree or some noble rock is just outside the field of view. If it is inconvenient to remove the camera to a greater distance in order to take in a larger field, all you need do is to put in the next lens of shorter focus — the lo-inch — and this will in all probability enable you to include exactly those objects that you wish. And so one may go on fitting in longer or shorter focus lenses to include a lesser or greater angle as circumstances may render desirable.

But you must also notice another point — that the longer the focus of the lens, the greater the distance the light has to travel before it reaches the plate, and therefore there is a corresponding diminution in its intensity. In practice this means that the longer the focus of the lens the longer the exposure must be to secure a perfect negative.

So far, then, we have described only the uses of the separate components of our casket set in their single form. We have now to consider what can be done with them when two are used simultaneously — one at the front of the tube, and one at the back. When employed in this form the whole lens is called a doublet or rapid rectilinear. Do not imagine from this name that there is any increase in rapidity by using two lenses in this way. There is absolutely none ; a single lens working at the same

Fig. 7. Eftect of Distortion.

aperture is just as quick as a rapid rectilinear. But a single lens has one drawback which prevents its use, in the case of architectural subjects especially — the tendency to distort the perpendicular lines of any building, and to impart to them curves which they do not possess in reality (fig. 7). Such distortion is not visible at all in pure landscape, or in any view where the cottage or houses only occupy a comparatively small proportion of the field ; but when we come to take a photograph of a church or a cathedral, either an exterior or an interior, then it is essential that these lines shall be straight, exactly as they are in reality. Now, by putting two lenses together as described, one corrects the faults of the other, and we get a straight-lined or rectilinear image. A table is usually supplied with the lenses showing what different combinations are possible. The longer focus lens is always placed at the front, the shorter at the back. If we put the 20-inch lens at the front and the 14-inch at the back, we shall get a rectilinear of approximately

inches focus ; if we put the 14-inch lens in front and the lo-inch at the back, we shall get a lens of about 6^ inches focus. The lo-inch with the 6-inch gives 4 inches focus, a very wide angle and a useful lens for small interiors or narrow streets.

Let us now refer the reader to the two illustrations (figs. 8 and 9, opposite p. 17). The first was taken with a lens of 4 inches focus, that is, a very wide angle ; the second with one of 14 inches focus, or narrow angle. The position of the camera was not altered in the least between one picture and the other beyond the necessary movement of the front in focussing. The former, of course, includes a much larger field than the latter, but in this particular subject the narrower angle view makes a more pleasing picture. The importance, then, of having lenses capable of including various angles will be obvious.

Fig. lo.

Now, the different kinds of lenses that one can make with a combination set such as we have described can be bought separately, and if the photographer does not go in for such a set, then the most useful all-round form of lens is the rapid rectilinear (fig. lo). These can be bought at all prices, from about 2IS. upwards. This form of lens is suitable for buildings, landscapes or portraits. It can be used as a single lens by screwing out either the front or the back component (preferably the former), provided always that the camera will rack out sufficiently to admit of the greater focal length of either component used singly. For by treating a rectilinear or doublet lens in this way, the focus is usually doubled; if the united components have a focal length of 7 inches, either of the single portions will probably be 14 inches. Some cheap cameras unfortunately are not provided with sufficient length of bellows to admit of the above-described procedure.

When the photographer buys a hand camera the lens is part and parcel of the instrument, and as a rule no separate choice is given to the customer : he takes lens and camera together. This is also the case when buying a standcamera outfit — camera, lens, tripod, etc., complete.” Now, these stock goods or regular line^ of the dealer are, as a general rule, fitted with lenses that err in the direction of being too short in focus, and hence including a wider angle than really desirable for the best effects. It is easy to understand why manufacturers prefer short-focus lenses : they require shorterbodied cameras, and they are quicker than those of long focus.

But if the purchaser is buying his lens separately, it will be well for him to see that he obtains one of focal length not shorter than the longer diameter of the plate he is using. For example, a quarter-plate camera should be fitted with a lens of not less than 4^ inches focus, and preferably about 5J inches. A half-plate camera should have a lens of not less than 6^ inches focus, and preferably 8 inches. For all-round landscape work, such as ordinarily practised by the amateur, lenses of these focal lengths give an angle more nearly approximating to that included by the eye.

Special so-called ‘‘ portrait ’’ lenses are to be had, but their only essential difference from the ordinary kind is that they work at a larger aperture (and are consequently more expensive), so that the exposure in a studio or room shall be reduced to a minimum.