An enquiry into the structure & animal oeconomy of the horse : comprehending the diseases to which his limbs and feet are subject, with proper directions for shoeing and pointing out a method for ascertaining his age until his twelfth year : to which is added an attempt to explain the laws of his progessive motion, on mechanical and anatomical principles : the whole embellished by seventeen copper plates

Front matter

m v. n

AN

INQUIRY

Preface

is investigation; for every blacksmith, groom, and stable boy, not only conceives himself, but is often believed by his employer to be fully competent to the important task of curing diseases, of the nature of which he is totally

ignorant.

Surely nothing can be more absurd than to imagine that a groom, by having fed and cleaned a horse for a few years, must consequently become acquainted with his diseases and their causes; it would be equally plausible to assert, that because he knows by ocular experience, that the sun rises in the morning: and

o

sets at night, he must be an astronomer. The majority of the affluent, to avoid the trouble of reflection, suffer themselves to be influenced in matters of this nature by men, whose opinions on

X

PREFACE.

on any other subject they would treat with the utmost contempt.

Few things can be more affecting to a contemplative and humane mind, than the sufferings of a mute and patient animal, the estimable contributor to our pleasures and comforts, when afflicted with some violent disease in which nature exerts her utmost efforts to relieve herself; but how must this scene of distress be heightened, could the proprietor be convinced, that the very men he applies to for assistance only aggravate the evil by their ignorance.

The most learned and experienced physicians confess the insufficiency of their art, and consequently their attention is directed to the means of rendering it less fallible. To men of

this

PREFACE.

xi this description, the infinite varieties which the same disease presents in different habits, will sufficiently demonstrate the difficulties attending their practice; but the empyric, whose confidence ever keeps pace with his want of skill, boldly prescribes the same treatment under every difference of age, sex, and constitution.

*

Consonant to this was the practice of farriery, until the establishment of the Veterinary College took place.

The treatises written on the subject before that period, were found to be so fallacious in the description of diseases, as well as in the proportions of drugs prescribed, that it was judged necessary to begin de novo. Horses were procured for xii

for the purposes of dissection, and of making experiments with regard to the quantity of different medicines which might be given with safety, as well as to their effects.

The professor and pupils were liberally seconded in their endeavours by the following o-entlemen, whose names are sufficient testimonials of theii * abilities, viz. Sir Geo. Baker, Mr. Cline, Mr. Abernethy, Dr. Geo. Fordyce, Mr. J. Hunter, Dr. Baillie, Mr, Cruikshanks, and Mr. Home ; the latter five generously granted to the pupils of the college the liberty of gratuitous attendance at several courses of their respective lectures. To this source I shall always be proud to acknowledge myself much indebted, and shall ever hold it in grateful remembrance.

With

PREFACE.

xiii

With respect to the plan of the present Work, it will be perceived that I have not entered very extensively into a description of internal diseases, from a conviction that such a treatise would be attended with more danger than utility.

The internal diseases of horses, except some few which are well marked, are so obscure as even to baffle the skill of an experienced practitioner in his endeavours to ascertain them.

Hence it cannot be expected that proprietors of horses, from the casual and confined observation furnished by their own stables, can acquire the faculty of discrimination in this respect, and the mischief arising from an improper administration of medicine, must be sufficiently xiv

PREFACE.

ficiently obvious both from condid reflection and fatal experience. To confirm more strongly this remark, I am in possession of many proofs within the circle of my own employers, where horses have fallen a sacrifice, particularly in attempts to destroy worms, and yet we see exhibited at the window of every druggist’s shop, a list of horse medicines prepared from the most approved recipes ; nor does the evil terminate here, since regularly educated veterinarians, bartering their better judgment for temporary interest, carry on the traffic in the form of medicine chests, with pamphlets containing directions for making use of their contents. This is certainly a cheap mode of conveying knowledge, and, if well founded, must do away at once the necessity of a veterinary college, and all its relative studies.

But

PREFACE.

xv

But farther to obviate any disappointment which might accrue to my readers, in not meeting in the following pages with what has been generally termed a compleat system of farriery, I have only to add, that I have directed my endeavours to point out the means of preventing diseases, and thereby to save the animal the pain and danger of undergoing medical discipline from, the hands of those who are unqualified for that purpose ; and I wish it to be understood, that my motive for introducing the foregoing observations originated purely from the conviction, that this branch of medicine, as well as all others, would, in every point of view, be more beneficial to the public, and to practitioners themselves, if it was divested of those little artifices which have loo long disgraced it.

For

XVI

PREFACE.

For this reason I have treated principally on the structure and diseases of the limbs, shoeing, management of the stable, & c. than which, I conceive, nothing can be more important. How far I have succeeded, I must submit to the candour of the public to determine. I shall at least possess the satisfaction of having endeavoured to promote the science, by promulgating that theory which I have found to be true in practice.

The source of peculiar properties in the structure and motion of the animal is, in general, but little understood. This branch I have attempted to elucidate upon mechanical and anatomical principles ; and the explanatory plates being designed by myself, will, I trust.

be

PREFACE.

XVII be more accurate than they would have been from the hands of a second person.

To the Professor at the Veterinary College, and my Fellow Pupils, the privilege of criticism more immediately belongs ; but I feel much confidence in the expectation of their candour and impartiality, more especially when I declare, that it will always give me pleasure to acknowledge any improvements which their industry and abilities may hereafter produce.

a

COJVTEJVT S,

Index

IJVBEX.

Page

Ear. Form of, bad consequences of clipping the!

hair from the inside of it — j

EYE. Its healthy and diseased state — 31

Ilawe, or membrana nictitans, its use 38

Lachrymal duct, obstruction of — • 41

FOOT. Its form and component parts — 26

Treatment of it in shoeing — — 47

Pumied or convex sole — — 52

Contracted hoof ■ — — 55

Diseased frog or running thrush — 61

Quittor — — — — 66

GREASE. Description of and method of cure — 71

HORSE. Proportion considered — — 6

Fore quarters, conformation of — 10

Body, proportion of — — — 17

Hind quarters, conformation of — 20

Age,

SXll

INDEX.

Age, method of ascertaining it

Page

Methods employed by dealers to make an ■)

old horse appear younger

Ditto to make a horse which is old appear to be five

four years j

• 178

Education —

—

Blood, characteristic of

—

ESS — —

—

Splent — —

—

Ring-bone — —

—

Stiff joint or anchylosis

—

Bone spavin — -

—

S9

Strain of the sheath of the tendon —

Rupture of the suspensor ligaments

Windgalls — —

—

Thorough pins —

—

Blood spavin —

—

Bog spavin —

—

ibid.

Curb — — -

—

Coffin joint, lameness of

—

Muscular lameness —

—

Rheumatism — -

—

Spasm — -

—

String-halt — — -

—

ibid.

PROGRESSION

INDEX.

xxiii

PROGRESSION

Walk

Trot

Page

194 200

Forging, or striking the fore feet with the hind feet, method of preventing it j

Trotting widely with the hind legs, the i reason ox it — ■ — )

Canter and gallop — ■ ■ — 208

Danger of stopping suddenly in the gallop 214- Passage — — ibid.

Advantage of teaching this pace — 21 6

RESPIRATION — — 115

Peculiar form of the throat of the horse 116 Peculiar form of the nostrils — 118

Broken wind — — 121

Roarer described — — 126

Crib-biter — — 129

STABLE. Structure and osconomy of • — 135

Ventilation — • — ■ — 138

Narrow stalls, inconvenience of — 145

Ground surface of the stall, erroneous con- }

’ [ 146

struction of — — *

Organs xxir INDEX.

Page

Organs of digestion described — 151

Staggers ' — — • 155

Training hunters and racers — 161

SHOE. Improper form considered 1 — 45

Proper form for a good foot — 47

Bad consequence of applying it hot 48

WOUNDS — — — 107

ABYERTISEMDENT*

THE Reader is requested to observe, that this Treatise has no connexion whatever with one published bp John Lawrence.

CHAPTER

AN INQUIRY

INTO THE STRUCTURE AND ANIMAL (ECONOMY

Considered in his relative situation in the , class of quadrupeds, the horse appears not to be so immediately conducive to the necessary comforts of man, as those animals which furnish food or raiment; but when his utility in agriculture, and in the transport of merchandise, as well as the share he contributes to our ease and pleasure, are viewed collectively, the horse has an undoubted claim to precedence, and consequently to an ample share of attention.

OF THE

CHAPTER I. On the external Conformation

B

The

The horse possesses speed, strength, and beauty, conjunctively in a degree far superior to all other animals. He is also more docile, and more easily applied to the service of man, whether for luxurious or laborious uses. For the purposes of parade he is peculiarly adapted, by a beautiful proportion and an innate pride and grandeur of deportment, particularly manifest in the manege, where, by the spirit and elegance of his movements, he appears to participate with his rider in the ostentatious pleasure. When employed in the field or the race, he visibly demonstrates the ardour of emulation, and finally merits our gratitude, by the patience and perseverance with which he endures the lower offices of labour and hardships of fatigue.

An animal possessing such estimable qualities, must certainly have claims on our attention sufficient to call forth an inquiry into his structure and animal ceconomy, on more scientific principles than has hitherto been accomplished.

In

ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION. 3 In the exposition of the external structure, which I have attempted in the following sheets, I certainly do not lay claim to originality in the undertaking, since certain French veterinary writers, particularly Bourgelat, have treated on the subject, and the late Mr. St. Bel, who was the first professor at the veterinary college, had it in contemplation to publish a work of the same nature, but did not live to complete his intentions. With regard to myself, the profession of portrait painter of horses, which I have pursued in conjunction with the veterinary practice, has directed my attention particularly to this branch of the science ; and the accuracy of observation which the eye acquires by making draughts from living objects, has probably enabled me to make more minute researches than might have been effected by others who possessed not the same advantages. The principles upon which I have founded the present system, I can with truth affirm to be the result of experience.

B 2 The

The data have been taken from the majority of objects in the same class, as no particular laws have yet been discovered which are unexceptionable in explaining the operations of nature, her productions being frequently in direct contradiction to our metaphysical reasoning.

As no accurate judgment in the proportions of architecture can be formed without possessing some knowledge of its rudiments, so can no experience in the proportions of a horse be acquired without some general acquaintance with his external anatomy.

Habitual observation may, in some degree, impart the faculty of discriminating in this respect; but it can never produce a true fundamental knowledge of the advantages or disadvantages arising from certain peculiarities of structure

Hence

Hence we find every man adapts his ideas of perfection to the peculiar conformation of his own horse.

For instance, the proprietor of along legged horse will tell you, that he is thereby better enabled to clear his leaps; while, on the other hand, another, who has a short legged horse, assures you, that no other can get so well through a heavy road; a third, who possesses a long backed horse, declares that they must have length somewhere; and, finally, the dealer in horses, who keeps fifty in his stables, sums up the business on a broad scale, and answers all your objections by asserting that they will go in all forms.

It would be thoroughly incompatible with the object of the present work, to suffer it to be biassed by such vague opinions, generated rather by partial comparison, than by actual experiment.

B 3

They

They who have no knowledge of mechanical powers, will, perhaps, ridicule the idea of reducing the animal to any such principle. Anatomical dissection, however, presents a machine of the truest mechanism, capable of loco-motion by means of muscles acting upon bones in various directions.

This being the fact, it will not be difficult to discover in what way the power of those muscles may be increased or diminished, not entirely by their own susceptibility of stimulus, but simply by their position when in a state of inaction. To explain this theory, will be the object of the present chapter.

The body and legs of the horse, exclusively of the head and tail, may be said to form nearly a square, as represented in plate I.

This square is divided horizontally into two parts, nearly equal, by the body and legs, as represented by the line A A.

It is again perpendicularly divided into three parts, as expressed by the lines B C.

The first of these lines B, descends perpendicularly from the withers to the ground, and gives the proportion of the fore quarters.

The second line C divides the body from the hinder quarters, and shews their proportion. These three divisions are nearly equal, except that the center division is rather the widest.

The necessity for this general proportion will be explained hereafter.

The head should be small, and the countenance animated; the forehead straight and broad, the eye prominent, the ears erect, the nostrils open and thin, the mouth lean and deep, the posterior part of the lower jaw should be open and capacious, which contributes much to

B 4- the

8 ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION, the freedom of bending the head inwards, and is also considered to facilitate respiration.

The form of the ear is admirably adapted for the purpose of collecting sound ; and it is worthy of remark, that a horse seldom sleeps without pointing one ear forwards and the other backwards, to enable him to receive notice of the approach of objects in either direction.

The horse’s sense of hearing is very acute, and it is a fact pretty well known by sportsmen, that he can hear the cry of the hounds at a greater distance than his rider. Hence it will scarcely be necessary to point out the absurdity of cropping ; yet there exists another bad custom, nearly as injurious as the former, viz. trimming the hair close out of the ears. The utility of hair in that part consists in moderating sound, excluding cold air, rain and flies, and other extraneous substances, which might otherwise

ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION. 9 wise drop into the ear*. The method of trimming the ears is by singeing the hair with a candle, and as the ear itself is frequently injured and rendered sore by this process, the horse in consequence becomes shy of any thing approaching his head.

The form of the mouth and lips clearly indicates that the animal was intended to be guided by the bit, as there are no teeth in that part to prevent the action of it against the bars of the mouth. Lean lips are most sensible of impression, and are therefore to be preferred.

* The ears of all animals are defended in some peculiar manner. The mole which lives under ground, and whose ear is constantly exposed to the ingress of earthy particles, has the faculty of closing that orifice by means of a sphincter muscle.

The human ear also secretes a fluid, which, being waxy and cohesive, arrests the progress of insects and dust, and prevents their entrance.

As

As deformity is constituted by a want of harmony in the component parts, it will not be difficult to perceive, that a long head and a short neck, or a short head and a long neck, cannot be esteemed handsome.

The neck should proceed in a line from the top of the head, forming a regular progressive curve to the withers. The trachea or windpipe should be large in diameter, and somewhat detached from the fleshy part of the neck. The size of its diameter has a considerable influence in respiration. Large windpipes are peculiar to blood horses, whence, probably, they are better winded than all others. The chief beauty of the forehand depends on the union of the neck with the shoulders. The neck should issue high, and nearly in a line with the withers, and its lower part should enter the chest high, and above the point of the shoulders : the opposite conformation to this produces what is termed an ewe neck, which can never be esteemed handsome.

The

ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION. 11 The shoulders constitute the center of motion in the fore part of the body, and the extent and elasticity of that motion will depend chiefly on the position of the shoulder blades. The connexion of the shoulder blades with the body is established by muscles only, independently of any joint whatever. It is by the alternate contraction and extension of these different muscles that motion is produced, and it is by their united elasticity that the shock is broken when in action.

This would not have been the case, had the shoulder terminated in a fixed joint. The truth of this remark may be ascertained by riding alternately on the withers and the croupe, and comparing the difference of their respective motions.

V

77 1 •

As it is the office of the hinder quarters to propel the body forwards, it is necessary that they should be closely united with the body by means

12 ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION, means of joints. But, on the other hand, as the fore quarters are chiefly employed in sustaining the equilibrium of the machine, the concussion which must have been produced if they had been united to the body by joints, would have been considerably greater than what is produced by their being attached by muscles only. In describing the action of the shoulder, it will be necessary to consider its position when in a state of immobility.

The scapula or blade bone is placed obliquely from the chest to the withers, and the center of its action is fixed in the middle of it. In its action, it describes as large a portion of a circle as the extension of its muscles will admit. If this portion of a circle, for instance, be ten degrees, and two different scapulae possess the same degree of extension, the one situated obliquely (vide plate 2, fig. l) the other perpendicularly (fig. 2) it must necessarily follow, that, acting on their respective centers, the one which is is oblique must elevate its lower extremity higher than that which is perpendicular, and consequently will increase the projection of every part of the fore limb. Hence it appears, that an oblique position of the shoulder is most favourable for progression.

The shoulder may want liberty either by being too fleshy or too lean. In the first instance it is overloaded, and in the last, it possesses not muscle sufficient to enable it to perform its functions with strength and celerity.

The muscles of the chest contribute greatly to the motion of the lower part of the shoulder. Hence a strong and moderately full chest, is to be preferred to one that is narrow and meagre. It will probably be urged, that horses are sometimes possessed of great speed, whose forehands in no wise agree with this description; but such horses are generally endowed with particular powers in their hinder quarters. The fore

quarters

14 ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION, quarters are merely passive, and extend themselves to receive the weight of the body, and if they are sufficiently strong for that purpose, the animal may certainly move with considerable velocity; but thence it is not to be inferred, that a greater velocity might not be produced if both the fore and hinder quarters were alike perfect in their conformation.

The fore legs will next come under consideration, on the good structure of which the safety and ease of the pace of the animal will chiefly depend.

A horse, whose legs are twisted, or improperly placed too far under his body, may possess great speed; but that his action must be imperfect, the following reasons will sufficiently demonstrate :

If the foot turns either inwards or outwards, it cannot alight flat on the ground, in which case

ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION. 15 case the position can never be firm and steady, because the pressure will be partial on either the inward or outward quarter of the foot. If the leg is not perfectly straight from the shoulder to the foot {vide plate 2>,fig. l) its action cannot be true, nor the center of gravity so readily found, as by one that is even and uniform in all its parts {fig. 2). If the elbow inclines inwards close to the ribs {fig. 1, A A) the leg must be thrown sideways when in action, which will remove the foot too far from the center of gravity, and produce a lateral rolling motion very unpleasant to the rider. Again, if the legs incline too much under the body, they will be overloaded, and the freedom of their action will be reduced in proportion as they are oppressed.

The fore legs, to be perfect, should, in a front view, be widest at the chest, gradually approaching each other downwards towards the foot, and descending in a perpendicular direction to the ground, as exemplified in plate 3, fig. 2.

The

The upper part of the fore leg next the shoulder, should be broad and muscular.

Ti-ie power of elevating the knee, and throwing the leg forwards, depends much on the size of the muscles in this part.

The knee in a front view should be broad, flat, and square; the lower part of the limb, between the knee and the fetlock, should be short, flat, and wide in a lateral view. The tendons should be distinct, firm, and detached from the bone. The fetlock should correspond in proportion with the rest of the leg, neither too upright nor too sloping. If it is too long, its ability of sustaining the weight of the body will be diminished; and if it is too short, it will be liable to knuckle over. Short pasterns are generally attended with contracted feet, the weight of the body not being thrown so much on the heel as is the case with long pasterns.

The

The general proportion of the limb is constituted by two equal divisions, viz. from the elbow to the knee, and from the knee to the ground.

The length of the fore leg should correspond with that of the hind leg, that is to say, the elbow D, should describe a horizontal line with the stifle E, plate 1, otherwise the harmony of motion is lost, as is the case in a carriage, where the fore wheels are of a smaller diameter than the hinder wheels, on which account they are obliged to perform three revolutions to two of the latter.

THE BODY

Contains the principal viscera and organs of life. The common appellation of this part, amongst horsemen, is the carcase; thus a horse is said to be long or short in the carcase. A horse which is short in the carcase, is usually

C ribbed

13 ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION, ribbed home, as it is termed, that is to say, there exists but a small space between the last rib and the hip bone. This conformation is justly esteemed excellent. A horse thus formed is generally short in the back and wide in his loins, and better adapted to carry weight and bear fatigue than a horse of a different form.

Horses of this description, however, are commonly supposed to be deficient in speed, from the idea that they have not sufficient length. But when it is considered that the carcase has no motion of itself, but is entirely acted upon by the quarters and extremities, it is manifest that the length should exist in these parts, and not in the body. In proof of this, two horses may be found exactly of the same length from the point of the shoulder, at the chest, to the point of the buttock, and yet one horse shall be long in the carcase, and the other short. Vide plate 5,, fig. 1 and 2.'

The

ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION. 19 The difference consists in the one having longer quarters than the other, and this is undoubtedly the form to be preferred.

The fore part of the carcase contains the heart and lungs, and thould therefore be sufficiently capacious to admit of a free action in those viscera. Horses with flat ribs experience a greater pressure from the atmosphere in their breathing, than those do which have their ribs more arched, consequently they are not so well adapted for respiration. The posterior part of the carcase contains the stomach and intestines, and is generally round and capacious in horses of a strong constitution. The back should sink in a small degree behind the withers, and proceed in a straight line to the end of the loins, and thence fall gradually to the tail. A hollow back renders the motion of the animal easier to the rider, but certainly cannot be so strong as one that is straight. A roach or hog back constantly throws the saddle forwards on the shoulders.

C 2

The

The loins should be wide, and the hips low. The distance of the point of the buttock from the hip should be considerable,, The lower part of the buttocks, in a posterior point of view, should be wider than the hips (vide pi. 4, fig. 2, l, A A). The tail should issue from the croupe in a regular progressive curve, and not appear as if it was stuck into the rump.

The hinder quarters may properly be considered as the main spring of the whole machine. This is clearly demonstrated by the superior size of the muscles, and the angular position of the thigh bones.

It has generally been the custom to attribute the source of motion principally to the fore quarters, under the idea, that if the fore quarters could move well and with speed, the hinder quarters must naturally follow. The fal-

ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION. 21 lacy of this doctrine may be easily exposed. In the action of a self-moving body, the posterior part generally constitutes the fixed point from whence the motion takes its origin. Thus, if the horse lean forwards, the center of gravity ceases to be supported, and he is obliged to advance one of his fore legs in order to recover the equilibrium. Again, if the chief source of motion exist in the fore quarters, whence does it arise that many good fore-quartered horses are bad leapers ? The reason is obvious : from weakness in their hinder quarters ; for the principal strength of a horse lies in the muscles of his thighs. Therefore a horse may rise well at a leap, and clear it with his fore legs, but cannot bring his hinder legs over, unless the muscles of his thighs are sufficiently powerful.

It may be urged, that leaping differs from galloping ; but galloping is, in reality, constituted by reiterated leaps on a plain surface.

C 3 Hence

22 ON THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION. Hence the necessity of a good conformation in the hinder quarters*.

The hinder quarters commence from the center of the back, and continue to the tail, including the hinder legs.

When viewed in a lateral direction, the distance from the hip bone to the point of the rump should be very considerable. Vide pi. 1, l I K.

The stifle (E) should fall perpendicularly in a direct line under the hip (I). By this means the length of the thigh bone (from L to E) is increased, and its position rendered more

* A strong instance in favour of this doctrine may be adduced in the celebrated horse Eclipse, who was unquestionably the most speedy horse of his day.

His fore quarters were very ill formed, and his shoulder low ; but his hinder quarters were particularly strong and muscular.

oblique oblique and angular. The leg from the hough to the ground should be perpendicular, and exactly under the hip joint. Vide L L.

The thigh above the hough should be broad and muscular (M M) ; the hough wide, flat, and lean. The width of the hough mechanically increases its powers, by removing the acting muscle to a greater distance from the joint, thereby lengthening the lever. The utility of the above conformation in the hinder quarters, consists in furnishing a greater length to the haunch and thigh bones, without adding to the volume of the part wherein they are contained, and without removing the foot too far from the center of gravity. The hinder quarters, when viewed from behind, should appear wider from stifle to stifle (A A, pi. 4-, Jig. 2) than from hip to hip (B B). Herein may be traced a strong characteristic of the blood horse.