The pedigree of the human race

Preface

In essaying to write of the Pedigree of the Human Race the author feels that he must write only as a professional zoologist, in¬ vestigating the history of a single animal species which has become universally distributed and which, in the matter of the nervous system, has far surpassed the powers of all other species.

It is thus primarily the Natural History of that Mammalian Order known as the Primates, and although, owing to the suprem¬ acy of the single living member of the Genus Homo, this Order has long been assigned the highest position among the Mammalian Orders, yet, anatomically considered, it is very generalized, re¬ taining many primitive characters, and by no means as specialized as many others. As the pedigree of certain of these, like the horse, the camel, and the elephant, has been quite satisfactorily traced by the aid of information furnished by the bones of their extinct members, the pedigree of man may now be traced by the same methods. All the way through the book we have imagined the de¬ cisions of a hypothetical scientist on the planet Mars, to whom have been brought many sorts of the animals from the earth, pre¬ served in alcohol, among which are several specimens of man, of all ages and races entirely nude and stripped of all extraneous results of civilization, and to him are referred all questions which may at any time seem too much prejudiced or too personal, and as he may not be considered even a Primate, he will be able to decide without human prejudice, and thus have a great advantage, to which we, as poor human beings, cannot attain. To him may be referred writer and reader alike, for both will have much need of it. This Martian scientist has helped us all the way through, and in no place more than in the consideration of the various living races, which both he and the author, when in his fairer moods, looks upon as merely the varieties of a single species, the main differences of which have been retained in their vats of alcohol.

Perhaps the most radical of the changes is the use of the Family Hominidae to include the tailless anthropoid apes and the various related species that have been recently unearthed in the soil. It may be useful to make a Sub-Family Homininae, to include man past and present, comparable to the Hylobatinae and Pongiinae, but there are certainly no structural differences sufficient to make a different Family of them. Even a definite separation of Sub- Families is hard to accomplish, and the distinctions between these may be eventually lessened when the returns are all in.

But this is only a preface, and it is unfair to the reader to bring

V

VI him into an argument in this place. It is to be hoped, however, that he will find in the book itself the author’s views, more or less aided by his Martian friend.

In closing this preface it is my pleasant duty to state that I have many friends who have helped me in compiling this book, and I would like especially to mention a few of them. The beautiful photographs of living Hominidae, Sub-Families Hylobatinae and Pongiinae, were taken for the New York Zoological Society by their official photographer, Mr. Elwin Sanborn. Dr. Raymond Z. Ditmars is also involved in this, as he first acceded to my request for photographs of the large anthropoids, and referred me to Mr. Sanborn. The little Indian boy, who figures here as an ex¬ ample of Homo sapiens, was taken at the Tewa Pueblo, N. M., by Miss Harriet Andrews, who gave me this photograph several years ago. In the lapse of years I have lost track of the photographer, but if this should ever come to her notice, I should like to express my thanks. I am reserving for the last, my most especial thanks to the well-known African explorer, Mr. Carl Akeley, through whom I procured the fine gorilla head, “The Old Man of Mikeno.” This was modeled on the spot by Mr. Akeley himself, who had just shot the specimen, and from this model a cast in bronze was made. This, although not a direct photograph from a living gorilla, is at present the best thing now obtainable, for it is quite impossible to photograph a living adult gorilla by any means now known. A photograph of a gorilla may be taken when one has just been killed, but such forms always have a dead look, and do not at all represent the living animal. This has been accomplished by Mr. Akeley, who combines the unusual combination of gifts, a sculptor and a good shot. Another quality, perhaps equally rare with the others, is that he is very generous, and it is owing to this quality, no less than to the others, that I am able to reproduce this ph'otograph here.

H. H. W.

CHAPTER I Page

1. The Genesis of Man . 1

2. Man as a Mammal . 4

3. The Subdivisions of Mammals . 5

4. Synoptical Classification of Living Mammals . . 10

5. The Sepabate Ordebs of Division (I) of Placental

Mammals . 13

6. The Order of Primates . 17

7. The Three Sub-orders of Primates . 23

8. Lemuroidea vs. Anthropoidea . 25

9. Synopsis of the Living Lemuroidea . 30

10. The Subdivisions of the Anthropoidea . 32

11. Synopsis of the Living Anthropoidea . 37

12. The Cebidae . 41

13. The Cercopithecidae (Lasiopygidae) and Simiidae

(Hylobatinae and Pongiinae) . 44

14. The Hominidae . 47

15. The Genus Pongo: the Orang-utan . 53

16. The Genus Gorilla: the Gorilla . 58

17. The Genus Pan: the Chimpanzees . 66

18. Other Hominids, not yet fully Known . 69

19. Native Names for the Different Simians .... 73

20. The Genus Homo: Man . 75

Chapter II

21. The Condition of the Paleontological Record . . 78

22. The Chronology of Mammalian History: the Main

Divisions . 81

23. The Chronology of Mammalian History: the Sub¬

divisions . 86

24. The Beginnings of Mammalian History: Triassic

Mammals . 88

vii viii PEDIGREE OF THE HUMAN RACE

Page

25. The Next Step: Jurassic Mammals . 92

26. The Allotheria: an Aberrant Branch of the Mam¬

malian Stock . 98

27. The Silence of the Cretaceous . 102

28. The Resumption of the Record: the Laramie For¬

mation . 107

29. The Successive Eutherian Invasions . 109

30. Theoretical Completion of the Fragmentary

History of Mammals . 112

31. The Earliest Known Primates . 116

32. Other Early Primates . 120

33. Extinct Lasiopygidae of Europe . . 128

34. Extinct Hominidae of Europe . 133

35. Extinct Hominidae of Asia and the Adjacent

Islands . 135

Chapter III Fossil Men

36. The Skeleton of the Neander Valley . 139

37. Establishment of the Species, Homo Neander-

TALENSIS . 140

38. The Heidelberg Man : Homo Heidelbergensis . . 146

39. The Piltdown Man: Eoanthropus Dawsoni . . . 147

40. The Javan Ape-man: Pithecanthropus Erectus . . 151 40a. The African Ape-Man : Australopithecus Afric anus 155

41. The Single Tooth from Nebraska, Hesperopithecus Haroldcooki . 156

42. The Oldest Known Men of the Present Species,

43. Other Ancient Skulls and Skeletons (European) . 160

44. Ancient Skulls and Skeletons in America .... 164

45. Methods of Examination and Comparison: the Cal¬

varial Height . 164

46. Methods of Examination and Comparison: the

Bregma and Lambda Angles . 167

47. Detailed Study of the Unterlesece Skull: the Site

and the Circumstances of the Discovery . . . 171

48. The Unterlesece Skull: Orientation and Restora¬

tion . 173

49. Further Measurement of the Unterlesece Skull . 178

CONTENTS ix

P A Pf?

Chapter IV

50. Principles of General Morphology as Applied to

the Primates . 180

51. Bodily Proportions of the Living Hominidae . . . 182

52. Actual Measurements of the Living Hominidae . 185

53. General Characteristics of the Hominid Head . . 190

54. The Facial Angle . 203

55. Cranial Capacity and Brain Weight . 208

56. Comparison of Skull Shapes by Projections:

Median Sagittal Plane . 215

57. The Tori Supraorbitales, and Other Structures

above the Orbits . 220

58. The Retreat of the Jaws . 223

59. The Dental Arcade and its Proportions .... 225

60. The Chin and the Neck . 229

61. The Features of the Face . 233

62. The Hair . 236

63. Hands and Feet . 240

64. Palms and Soles . 247

65. The Attainment of the Erect Position . 253

66. Articulate Speech . 259

67. Summary: the Phylogenetic Tree of the Primates;

the Pedigree of the Human Race . 264

Chapter V

68. What People Are Asking Concerning Human Races 273

69. Varieties, Sub-species and “Races” among Animals 277

70. Ethnology and its Related Branches . 278

71. What Is a Race? . 279

72. Pure vs. Mixed Races . 280

73. Head Shapes: Cranial Index . 284

74. Shape of Face . 293

75. The Eyes . 295

76. The Nose . 302

77. The Mouth and Lips . 309

X

Page

78. Skin Color . 311

79. The Hair . 316

80. The Stature . 324

81. The Proportions of the Living Body . 327

82. Other Bodily Characteristics with Racial Signifi¬

cance . 331

Chapter VI Classification Of The Human Races

83. Early Attempts to Classify Human Races .... 335

84. A Proposal for a New Classification . 338

85. The Protomorphs . 341

86. The Metamorphic Race of Leucoderms: the “Cau¬

casian” Race . . . . 342

87. The Metamorphic Race of Xanthoderms: the

“Mongolian” Race . 343

88. The Metamorphic Race of Melanoderms: the

“Ethiopian” Race . 344

89. The Archimorphic Races : the Proto-Caucasians . 345

90. The Archimorphic Races: the Proto-Mongolians . 350

91. The Archimorphic Races: the Proto-Ethiopians . . 354

92. A Classified List of the Living Human Races . . 355

Index . 361

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig- Page

Group of Veddahs, the aboriginal inhabitants of the Island of Ceylon . Frontis.

1. Skull of Mustela martes (Marten) . 27

2. Skull of Lemur catta . . 27

3. Skull of Hylobates leuciscus, an anthropoid . 28

4. Skull of Loris gracilis, the “agile lemur” . 31

5. Skull of Tarsius spectrum, the “spectral Tarsier” (see also p. 35) 34

6. Skull of Alouatta villosa, the “black Howler” . 42

7. The wau-wau gibbon, Hylobates leuciscus, Bornean race . . 51

8. Same as the foregoing; side view . 52

9. Living gibbon ( Hylobates) . 54

10. Orang-utan or “Mias”; Pongo pygmaeus (Simla satyrus) . . 55

11. Living Orang-utan of the more usual variety . 57

12. Stuffed specimen of a gorilla, sent to this country by Paul B.

DuChaillu, about 1860 62

13. Gorilla gorilla; photograph of a young living specimen ... 64

14. Head of male gorilla, from a bronze bust . 65

15. Living specimen of Pan chimpanse . 67

16. Homo sapiens, an American Indian baby, 18 months old . . 76

17. The chronology of Geologic time since the beginning of the • Mesozoic, with the correspondence between the formations

of Europe and North America . 85

18. Skull of Sesamodon browni, a Cynodont reptile . 88

19. Skull of Didelphys americana, the common opossum ... 89

20. The only known fragments of Triassic mammals .... 90

21. Mammalian remains from the Upper Jurassic . 93

22. Mammalian remains from the Stonesfield slates, England . . 95

23. An Eocene (Puerco) Allotherian, Ptilodus gracilis (see also p. 101) 100

24. Diagram illustrating the effect upon our knowledge of an animal

group of the complete loss of records during a long period . .105

25. Remains of the oldest mammals with Primate affinities . .118

26. The most primitive knownAnthropoidea(seealsopp. 122 and 123) 121

27. Three views of the skull of Adapis parisianus, an European

lemur . 124

28. Necrolemur antiquus, an European contemporary of Adapis . 125

29. Drawings representing Chiromyoidea . 127

30. Phylogenetic tree of the Primates, illustrating the relationships

advocated in this book . 129

31. Extinct European Lasiopygidae (M esopithecus pentelici ) (see

XI xii PEDIGREE OF THE HUMAN RACE

Fig. Page

32. Oreopithecus bamboli, from the Miocene of Monte Bamboli in

. Tuscany . 132

33. Extinct European Hominidae . 134

34. Pithecanthropus erectus, the transition form from Trinil, Java

35. Cast of skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, excavated in 1909 . . 142

36. Same cast as Fig. 35; front view . 143

37. Restoration of the face of the La Chapelle-aux-Saints skull . . 144

38. Restoration of the face of the Gibraltar skull . 145

39. A. Skull of Homo neandertalensis . 146

B. Skull of Australian native . 147

40. Two views of the Heidelberg jaw ... 148

41. The Piltdown skull, Eoanthropus Dawsoni . 149

42. A. Restoration of the skull of Pithecanthropus erectus, the ape-

man from Java . 154

B. Hypothetical form, showing skull outlines intermediate be¬ tween those of Pithecanthropus and the La Chapelle-aux-

Saints . 154

42L Australopithecus africanus, discovered near Tarings, Bechuana-

land, in Feb. 1925 155

43. Cro-Magnon type of skeleton from Bausse-Rousse . . . .159

44. Two views of the skull fragment from Egisheim, near Colmar . 162

45. Median craniogram showing the Calvarial Height .... 166

46. A. Median craniogram of skull of Pithecanthropus erectus; B. Me¬

dian craniogram of the original skull from the Neandertal valley . 167

47. Median craniograms of skulls of Spy I and Spy II . . . .168

48. A. Median craniogram of skull from Galley Hill; B. Median

craniogram of skull of the “Old Man of Cro-Magnon” . . . 170

49. Section of the grotto at Unterlesece . 172

50. Views of the Unterlesece skull (see also following page) . . 174

51. More views of the Unterlesece skull . 176

52. Restoration of the Unterlesece skull from above . 177

53. Median craniogram of the Unterlesece skull . 178

54. Comparison of Primate skulls . 181

55. The bodily proportions of the four higher Hominid Genera (also

56. Syndactylus syndactylus, the Long-armed Gibbon . 188

57. Pongo pygmacus, the Orang-utan (young) . 189

58. Pongo pygmacus, same skeleton as in Fig. 57 . 190

59. Homo sapiens (female) . 190

60. Pan chimpanse . 190

61. Gorilla gorilla, front . 191

62. Gorilla gorilla, side . 191

63. Photographs of skeletons of Man and young Orang-utan . . 192

64. Diagram of Primate skulls . 194

ILLUSTRATION S

Fig.

xiii

Skull of Gorilla gorilla (male) . 195

Same skull as in the previous figure . 195

Same skull as in Figs. 65 and 66 . .197

Same skull as in the above figures . 198

Gorilla gorilla (female) . 199

Same skull as above . 200

Skull of Pan chimpanse . 201

Same skull as in the previous figure . 202

Same skull as in the two previous figures . 203

Skull of Pongo pygmacus (female) . 204

Same skull as in the previous figure . 205

Comparisons of the Facial Angle of the European and the Negro 206

Schwalbe’s analysis of the frontal bone . 221

Human dental arcades . 225

Outlines of mandibles of Simian apes and early Man . . . 230

Foot (hind) of a lemuroid, Galago . 241

Hind and fore foot of a marmoset, Callithrix . 242

Photograph of twin human infants . 244

Foot of a field-mouse ( Microtus ) . 247

Hand of a monkey ( Pithecus ) . 249

Configuration of the epidermic ridges (friction-skin) upon the

palm of the human hand . 251

Configuration of the epidermic ridges upon the human sole . . 252

Walking poses assumed by the apes . 255

Phylogenetic tree of the Anthropoidea as based upon the general anatomical structure . 266

Phylogenetic tree of the Anthropoidea as based upon the epi¬ dermic patterns of the soles . 268

Phylogenetic tree of the Primates . 270

Diagram illustrating the Cranial Index . 286

Diagram showing the possibility of a great dissimilarity in

shape, yet with the same Cranial Index . 287

Photographs of three German soldiers, showing varieties of

head-shapes found in that country . 288

Photographs of three Italian soldiers, showing varieties of

head-shapes found in that country . 289

Diagraph tracings taken around the crania of six modern Italian

skulls . 292

Dioptograph sketches of three skulls, norma frontalis, showing

the extremes of facial proportions . 294

Diagrams serving to explain the peculiarity known as the

“Mongolian eye” . 297

Diagrams of the various shapes of the lower plane of the nose,

as seen from beneath . 305

Characteristic nasal profiles in the European peoples . . . 306 xiv

Fig. Page

100. Figures to illustrate the essential peculiarities of the Semitic

nose . 307

101. Map showing the distribution of hair color in the British Isles 322

102. Sternalis muscle in a living Japanese . 332

103. Native Australian; the king of the Moruya Tribe .... 340

104. A Tamil man of the Dra vidian race from Jaffna, Ceylon . . . 346

105. A Tamil man from Jaffna, Ceylon . 347

106. Side view of the same man shown in Fig. 104 348

107. Side view of the same man shown in Fig. 105 349

108. A Tamil woman from Jaffna, Ceylon . 350

109. A Tamil woman from Jaffna, Ceylon . 351

110. Side view of the same woman shown in Fig. 108 . 352

111. Side view of the same woman shown in Fig. 109 . 353

Colored plate of Phylogenetic tree . opposite 360