Pearls and pearling

Preface

A FEW years ago I temporarily set aside my workas a salesman to hunt for pearls on the Illinois River.

The work in the pure air and sunshine; and the evei present hope of finding valuable pearls, were so fascinating I did not like to leave the occupation, so I continued with the work and studied most of the subjects relating to it.

Desiring to prepare for the business in a very thorough manner I tried to purchase a book upon the subject, but none was printed. There has been a general demand for information on pearl hunting and, at the request of the Fur News Publishing Company, I have written this book, which I hope will prove of value to my fellow-men.

Tt is intended especially for pearl hunters and those who contemplate entering the profession, although I shall be pleased if it is of • interest to jewelers and lovers of pearls in general.

My aim has been to explain all parts of the work so thoroughly that one entirely unacquainted will after reading this book, not only understand the methods and appliances, but be able to hunt for pearls successfully. I

Preface 7

earnestly hope that all who read this book may be so fortunate as to find valuable pearls.

I am pleased to thank the friends who have supplied photographs, and am especially grateful to Messrs. Combes & Van Roden, of Philadelphia, for the loan of the original photographs of members of the English nobility.

Herbert H. Vertrees.

Pittsfield, Illinois, May 23, 1913.

Contents

Chapter Page

I The Fresh-Water Pearl 13

II The Origin of the Pearl 19

CHAPTER I. The Fresh-Water Pearl

PEARLS are lustrous gems produced by certain Mollusks. They consist of thin concentric layers of carbonate of lime interstratified with animal membrane, and are the result of an unusual secretion, primarily caused by the introduction of a parasite or some other object within the mantle.

The exact composition of a pearl is as follows :

Carbonate of lime , 91.72%

Organic matter 5-94%

Water 2.34%

These gems are divided into two classes, known as Oriental and Fresh- W^ater Pearls.

The Oriental, or Ocean Pearl, is produced by the Avicula Margaritifeva, or Pearl Oyster. Of this bivalve there are many varieties all differing in size, color, weight and quality of the shell.

The most important Oriental Pearl Fisheries are the following: Ceylon, Australia, Gambier, South Sea Islands, Arabian Sea, Bands, Costa Rica, A roe, Haiti, Manilla, Venezuela, Panama and Lower California.

The Fresh- Water Pearl is produced by a mussel known as Unio Marc/aritifera. This name is applied to the mussels of our country. The name Naiades is a more general term and includes all fresh-water mussels, which are distributed over the entire globe and are found throughout the streams and lakes of all continents, as well as all the larger islands and some smaller islands.

The Unio Margaritifera is very common in North America and especially in the United States. These have a large variety of species also, and there are known to be living in North America nearly 600 different species of them. Most of these are found in the Mississippi drainage area and other streams emptying into the Gulf of Mexico from the north.

Many Mollusks are found in the streams emptying into the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River. Many are also found in rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean. The rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean do not contain many Mollusks and are not known as pearl streams.

Most of the Fresh- Water Pearls come from the United States. In this book we shall give our attention almost entirely to subjects relating to Fresh-Water Pearls. Must of the Union idac are Margciritifcrous, or pearl bearing, although many of these varieties are uncommon and so we get most of our pearls from the varieties that are most abundant. Although these are very plentiful, the pearls are very scarce and one has no assurance of finding a pearl in a given number of shells. In some localities there are more pearls than other places; yet they are scarce, everywhere. This is not a bad feature after all as the scarcity of the pearls increases the value of the few that are found.

In Europe the Fresh-Water Pearls have held an im-

The Fresh Water Pearl 15

•portant place among the gems of the world since ancient times. They were used as articles of trade and barter with the Romans, and it is said that Caesar undertook his British expedition partly for the purpose of finding pearls, and Pliny reports his bringing home a shield of British pearls, which he dedicated to Venus Genetrix, and hung up in her temple. An account of the pearl fisheries of Ireland was published describing the way the mussels lived in the swift rivers there. The men would rind about one good pearl in 10,000 mussels.

Between 1761 and 1764 the Conway River, in Scotland, supplied the London market with about $50,000.00 worth of pearls. The rivers of Cumberland, Conway and Tay. in Scotland, have in the past yielded fine pearls, and these gems are still found there.

Ireland still places pearls on the European market. These are from the Armagh River, in County Tyrone, and the Slavey River, in County Wexford. Some small pearls are found in the lakes in Finland. These are bluish white in color and resemble the Scotch pearls. Many beautiful pearls have been found in the rivers of France, Germany. Austria, Bavaria and many other countries.

In the United States fresh-water pearls were found several hundred years previous to the visit of Columbus. In the prehistoric times the Mound Builders who used to inhabit this country used these gems as ornaments, and archaeologists have unearthened large collections of pearls from the mounds in Ohio.

These pearls, however, were of no value because they

ID Pearls and Pearling

had been pierced by a hot wire and also partly decayed by lying in the earth for such a long period of time.

When Columbus discovered America, he found the Indians wearing numbers of fresh-water pearls.

Upon his return to Spain, he presented to Queen Isabella a magnificent necklace of these American fresh-water pearls. Other discoverers also found the natives with these pearls and prized them very highly, and some were so disrespectful as to rob the graves of Indian chiefs, while the Indian relatives of the dead monarchs were compelled to allow the depredations.

The first great "find'' of our American people occurred in 1857 at Notch Brook, near Paterson, X. J. It weighed 93 grains and was sold to the Empress Eugenie, of France. It became known as the Queen Pearl. This event created great excitement and pearl hunting began throughout the country, and Unios at Notch Brook and elsewhere were destroyed by the million, but without much success. The experience at Notch Brook is only one of many "pearl fevers." In almost any locality where some good pearls have been found, many people leave good positions and nearly every one goes to the river to hunt for the very elusive pearl. The wholesale destruction of the mussels soon exhausts the local supply and the excitement subsides, and very few are rewarded for their work. .

After a period of from five to ten years, during which interval the mussels have an opportunity to increase in size and numbers, the pearl fever is sometimes repeated with the same results. In the experiences just mentioned,

The Fresh Water Pearl 17

the methods and appliances usually employed in the pearl hunts were very crude and primitive, and the people were without knowledge or skill in their work. It is quite likely that a man who has a good knowledge of the business, and who is skillful in the use of some of our modern appliances for pearl hunting, can now go into the same localities and work with a reasonable degree of success.

At the present time the industry known as pearl hunting differs widely from what it ' was many years ago. There is now in most instances a market for the shells and the appliances and methods used were not thought of twenty-live years ago.

The pearl hunting industry, or profession, as we may rightfully speak of it. is supported and elevated by many thousands of our best citizens who depend on this line of work for the necessities and comforts of life.

These men add continuously to the wealth of our land by raising from the watery depths the shells for many economic uses and the lustrous fresh-water pearls for adornment.

As a result of the efforts of pearl hunters the markets are supplied with thousands of American fresh-water pearls which are now the pride and delight of many ladies in America and Europe.

Among these American pearls are many of extraordinary size and beauty. Some of the large white pearls are so irridescent and clear that they possess great radiance and luster and are used in centers of very famous necklaces.

[8 Pearls and I'karling

Another important feature of the American fresh-water pearls is the great variety of tints and colors found among them. This is not found in pearls of other lands, excepting ocean fisheries of Lower California, Colombia, Mexico and Panama, Gambier, and several unimportant fisheries. In our fresh-water pearls we find sky blue, peacock green, lavender, ruby, maroon, cherry, salmon, rose, bronze, purple, pink, gold, wine, gray, green, silver, black, bright yellow, red, blue, lead and brown. In fact, all shades of the rainbow are duplicated in these gems.

In addition to their color and sheen they are very irridesc'ent. On account of their radiant layers some are more lustrous than the Ceylon pearls, and many of the lighter colored irridescent ones are nearly translucent.

For a long time the American fresh-water pearls were not fully appreciated by the European aristocracy and had to be offered under the name of oriental pearls to be sold; but now they are offered under their real name and stand on their own merits and reputation, and have nearly reached their deserved economic position among the gems of the world. Four rare American fresh-water pearls are very artistically portrayed in this book. The ball pearl, pear pearl, high-button pearl and low-button are well displayed in the illustrations.

CHAPTER II. The Origin of the Pearl

ONE may examine many thousands of mussels without finding a pearl. This fact often induces people to wonder why all mussels do not contain gems ; or why any of the mollusks produce them ; or what really causes the pearl to form. Many interested people have studied the origin of pearls and many theories have been advanced by noted scientists, but until the last few years there seemed to be no solution of the problem.

In order that we may consider this subject properly it will be necessary to first show the difference between the fine pearls and the various other nacreous formations. The fine pearls are found in the posterior part of the mussel, usually loose within the mantle of the mollusk. Sometimes these become attached to the shell near the mantle, and in verv rare instances they go astray into some other part of the shell. The other nacreous formations are the common, irregularly shaped pearls which are not to be compared with the fine pearls in value. These are baroques and slugs and are not formed in the same manner as the fine pearls.

They seem to originate from a number of cau>es. Sometimes the shell of a mollusk is injured in an accident and some parts are broken off from the hinge or others parts of the shell. Occasionally they seem to be small lumps of mother-of-pearl covered by the secretions of the mollusk. Then again they appear to be due to an irritation caused by the introduction of some foreign object. All these objects gradually become coated with layers of nacre.

These are found in a large variety of forms ; but never assume the perfect shape of any of the styles of the fine pearls.

In this chapter, therefore, we shall give our attention mostly to the study of the formations that are only found in or near the mantle at the posterior or thin end of the shell.

As the pearl has been known for so many centuries, it is quite probable that its origin was a much debated question in ancient times ; yet the old historians have not recorded anything more than a few far-fetched stories that are referred to as legends and that do not offer any reasonable theories as to the origin of this brilliant jewel.

For more than 350 years the best scientists have been studying the origin of the pearl. Their efforts have resulted in many theories which differ widely and all are interesting. Our first record is that of the experience of Rondelet in 1554. He considered pearls to be concretion- due to disease, like the calculi of mammals. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries some writers regarded pearls as the eggs of the mollusk. In 1826 a scientist named Home advanced a similar theory, stating that pearls were formed around eggs that had failed to be expelled by the oviduct.

Tiif. Origin of the Pearl 21

The scientist Diguet, who studied this question in the pearl oyster of the Gulf of California, said there were three stages in the development of the pearl. In the first stage there is a sack filled with a translucent, serous liquid, the effusion of which is due probably to irritation caused by a parasite. In the second stage the liquid gradually thickens and assumes the appearance of jelly. Then it changes into conchyolin and the mass divides into concentric layers separated by interstices. The third stage is the petrification or calcination of the pearl by the filling of these interstices with a crystallized calcareous deposit.

The famous German naturalist, Yon Baer, in 1830 made the statement that the central nucleus of a pearl was a small animalcule or worm. The Italian naturalist De Filippi, in 1852 again brought out the theory of the parasitical origin of pearls. He attributed the frequency of pearls in the Anodonta cygnea of the Lake of Racconigi in the royal park to the presence of a parasitic worm, Distoniutn duplication in the mantle of the mollusk.

In 1856 Kuchenmeister stated that the pearls of the rivers in Saxony, had as their nuclei small ticks, or mites. Mobias devoted considerable time to the pearl oyster on the western coast of America. It was his opinion that the formation of pearls in these mollusks was due to a parasitical worm. Two famous scientists. Kelaart and Humbert, announced that the Cercaria, Filaria, and three other helminths which they found in the pearl oyster of Ceylon, acted an important part in the formation of the pearls of this mollusk. The views of these men were confirmed by M. Edgar Thurston in 1894.

In 1897 M. A. Giard noticed that mollusks produced irregular deposits of conchiolin and lime around the parasite.

In 1902 Jameson, of London, explained that the formation of pearls in the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis, is due to irritation caused by the Distoma.

Two noted English naturalists, Herdman and Hornell, after three inspections of the oyster banks, made a statement to the effect that they had examined many hundreds of oysters and had finally concluded that grains of sand and other inorganic particles did not form the nuclei of pearls, except in unusual instances, such as injury to the mollusk by breaking the shell which would allow sand to enter. According to these English naturalists, the nucleus of the fine pearl of Margaratifera vulgaris is the embryo of a worm of the genus Tetrarhynchus.

The famous scientist, Dr. L. G. Seurat, in examining the Margaratifera cumingi, or pearl oyster of the Gambier Islands found that the formation of pearls is due to irritation caused by the embryo of a worm of the Tyloccphalum.

Investigations of American fresh-water mussels for the purpose of learning the origin of pearls have also been carried on by our scientists.

It has only been in recent years, however, that the subject has engaged their attention.

The United States Bureau of Fisheries, in charge of Hon. George M. Powers, Commissioner, has accom-

The Origin of the Pearl 23

plished some very wonderful feats in the various tasks that concern the fresh-water mussels of our countrv.

Among the scientists in the Government service who have contributed much valuable information are: Dr. Barton, W. Everman, Chief of the Division of Scientific Inquiry of the Bureau of Fisheries ; George Lefevre, Winterton C. Curtis, H. Walton Clark, Charles B. Wilson, S. E. Meek, Ernest Danglade and R. E. Coker, Ph. D. All of these men have proved by the results of their efforts that they are well qualified for this kind of work for their country. It is to be hoped that all of them may continue in the service in which they have proved themselves so valuable.

While their work has been largely in the investigations of the Unionidae, with reference to the various economic questions relating to these mollusks, yet they have also studied the origin of the fresh-water pearl. One of the most important of these investigations will be mentioned, viz: The report entitled, "The Mussel Fauna of the Maumee River," by H. Walton Clark and Charles B. Wilson. In this record eleven pages are devoted to the parasites of mussels. These men found nine parasites which will be described briefly :

1. Cotylaspus insignis, Lcidy. A small organism which to the naked eye resembles a pale leech. The body is trumpet shaped and the ventral surface has a large ovate disk cut up by partitions. By this disk the animal adheres to the mussel and lives in the axils of the inner gills.

It was most common in Anadonta grand is and was also found in most of the other mussels. One example of Lcunpsilis rectus contained sixty-seven of these parasites. They do not seem to harm the mussels.

2. Aspidogaster conchicola. Von P>aer is similar to the one just mentioned, but much larger and has a larger adhering disk. This parasite affects various species of mussels, but prefers Anadonta. Sytnphynota Complanata and Lampsilis A lot us, in which many are found. It usually lives in the pericardial cavity of the host. It is possible these may occasionally form hinge pearls, a shape of the two are quite similar.

3. The Marginal Cyst Distomid. This distomid forms spherical cysts and is fairly common, especially in Lampsilis ligamentinus and L. ventricosus. Some were found in one Indrula undulate and one Sytnphynota costata. It i- probably the species discovered by H. M. Kelly, who noticed it in four examples of L. ligamentinus. The cysts were usually found along the edge of the mantle, generally in the muscular portion below the pallial line. They are also frequently found in the adductor muscle.. and especially in the lower part of the foot where occasionally many are found. They seem to prefer muscular tissue. Sometimes cysts of various ages are found in the same mussels. The scientists carefully broke the crust surrounding one of the younger cy>ts, and the released distomid crawled about slowly. It was necessary to use the miscroscope to study the minute distomid. This parasite often causes irregular blisters and -tain- the shell a steel blue color, where the cysts are near the outer surface nf the mantle. Then, too. as the cysts increase in

The Origin of the Pearl 25

size, they form nodules in the mantle and cause the shell to be built out around them, so that they leave pits in the nacre similar to pearls. The marginal cyst distomid is of especial interest on account of its connection with pearl formation. Suspicion that this distomid concerned the formation of the pearls was aroused when the objects were first found, as their form and position in the mantle were especially suggestive. This suspicion was intensified by frequently finding small round pearls in the mantle of mussels, closely associated with the cysts. Finally one of these pearls was examined and a cyst was found to be the nucleus of the pearl.

The marginal cyst distomid is very widely distributed. being found in the Mississippi. Illinois, and many other rivers.

4. The Distomid of Osborn. — Anadonta was often affected with small white sporocysts. which covered the outside surface of the mantle next to the nacre. The nacre of these mussels was often raised into a number of sharp, pearly blisters conforming with the size and shape of the sporocysts, and indicate that the sporocysts had been actually covered with nacre. Some sporocysts were carefully examined. The skin of the sporocysts was transparent enough to reveal, in the interior, the cercarial. It has been learned that the cercarial later come out from their sporocysts and pass through various changes until it has the typical form of a Distomum. when it moves up into the umbonal region of the mussel and acquires a pinkish color. There it remains and stains the nacre a salmon color. The distomid of Osborn is said to form dorsal baroque pearls in the anadonta.

5. The Distomid of Kelly is very similar to the Dis totnid of Osborn. However, they are not so common and are not usually associated with sporocysts or cercariae. It does not produce a salmon colored stain or any other stain usually. This distomid is frequently found in the thicker shelled mussels such as Lampsilis vcntricosus, L. ligament inus, Obovaria circulus, and especially in Qiiadrula tuberculoid and Unio gibbosus.

It is said that most of the dorsal baroques which are found by pearl hunters are formed through the activities of this parasite.

(\. Bucephalus polymorphus, von Baer is a common parasite which affects many mussels. It has been found to be very dangerous to mussels, and is probably to be regarded as a parasite.

8. Leeches were found quite frequently on the inside of the shells of the anadonta, and are probably parasites.

9. A tax ypsilophorus was a common parasite and was particularly common on anadonta. It has been suggested that the eggs of the A tax may lead to the formation of pearls ; but this has not been proved.

As a rule the anadontas and other thin shelled mussels are more heavily parasited than the thick shells, and parasites are more abundant in shallow, warm and quiet pools than in rivers.

There has been a theory in regard to the origin of pearls in which a grain of sand or small pebble was said to be the nucleus of a pearl. In some localities this theory is accepted as a fact, yet from the experiences

The Origin of the Pearl 27

of the scientists recorded we are unable to find any who advance the sand or pebble theory. Some admit that this may be the cause of fine pearls in rare instances or that such foreign particles may be the cause of the formation of baroques or slugs very frequently, yet practically all of these learned men have returned a verdict in favor of the parasitical origin of fine pearls. The author has also given considerable attention to the origin of pearls, and in his various experiences as a pearl hunter on different rivers, has found a large variety of conditions, and he is a firm believer in the parasitical origin of fine pearls in most instances, and in the parasitical origin of baroques and slugs in many instances, although he has found many baroques and slugs which were undoubtedly formations due to accidents in which the shells were broken.

At present, pearls are being produced artifically by the Japanese. These are called culture pearls. A small porcelain dome is attached to the inside of the shell and cemented in place, this becomes covered with layers of nacre and, when taken from the shell, is joined to another dome of mother of pearl and placed upon the market. These are culture pearls and cannot be sold as real pearls.

The Chinese have also made some progress in the production of artificial pearls and their method is similar to that of the Japanese.

It will be seen that pearls can be formed in several ways, and the old, old problem regarding the origin of the pearl is now almost solved.

S^

Lt-. IJfi^^^l

IITfliiAM i ! ^&v^SaH

JAPANESE CULTURE PEARLS. NATURAL SIZE. (From Bulletin r'nit<<i States Bureau o\ Fis)

CHAPTER III. The History of the Pearl

IN turning the pages of ancient, medieval and modern history we find recorded the deeds of the people of all nations, and always, even as far back as the earliest dawn of civilization we can see the tender light of the lustrous pearl shining softly and radiantly, from the crowns of kings in nearly all lands.

The glimmering, shimmering light of the wondrous pearl has attracted and charmed the rulers and people of all nations. Chinese. Japanese. Hindu. Egyptian. Roman, Greek, Macedonian, Italian, Persia. Austrian. German, French, English, Spanish, Australian. Polynesian, African, Turk, Arab, Indian, American and many others have been won by the subdued splendor of this precious gem.

About 350 B. C. a writer of Myteline, in the Island of Lesbos, mentioned pearls that were found in the oysters near the shores of Armenia, Persia, Susiana. and Babylonia. This was just before Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont with his magnificent Macedonian army and won his triumphant victories in Persia. Then the store houses and treasures of Babylon and Susa were opened to him. It is also recorded that pearls were found in Egypt and, as that country had been under

3<d Pearls and Pearling

Persian rule, it and its treasures were acquired by the great Alexander.

In 55 B. C. Julius Caesar, with his mighty Roman army, invaded Britain and in his conquest secured valuable treasures among which pearls were mentioned. It is also known that Caesar presented a pearl of great value t< > the mother of Brutus in the year 54 B. C.

The famous Cleopatra was born in the year 69 B. C, and was the daughter of the Egyptian king Ptolemy Auletes. It is on record that on the occasion of a great feast she dissolved a pearl of fabulous size and value in wine or vinegar, and drank it. The density of pearls and the value of vinegar as a solvent, however, both tend to weaken the account, and the reader is not expected to believe the story.

Claudia, the glutton, is said to have also consumed a valuable pearl in imitation of the noted Cleopatra. The Bible mentions the pearl in several places. The Saviour enthroned the pearl in a celestial sheen, when (Matt. 13: 45-46) He likened the kingdom of Heaven unto it. In His similitude, the pearl was crowned with the highest compliment of all ages. He was the greatest of all teachers and from His use of the pearl as an object in the lesson we observe that not only He recognized the great worth of the gem, but that his audience also esteemed it highly as He always used objects that were known by all.

In the revelation of St. John the Divine, in the twenty-first verse of the twenty-first chapter occurs a description of the gates of Heaven :

The History of the Pearl 31

"And the twelve gates were twelve pearls, each one of the several gates was of one pearl ; and the street of the city was pure gold, as it were transparent glass." The use of pearls in describing the heavenly gates, shows the sublime and sacred respect with which John thought of the radiant pearl.

The great historian Pliny, who was born in Italy in 23 A. D., mentioned the pearl in his writings.

In 37 A. D. the wife of Caius Caligula possessed a collection of pearls valued at $3,000,000.00.

From the earliest history pearls were found in Britain.

From the reign of Francis I. to Louis XIII. the pearl was prominent in France. It is said that there was a law in France about 1355 which prohibited the goldsmiths in Paris from setting Scotch pearls with the oriental.

Mary, Queen of Scots, wore pendant pearls in her ears when she went to chapel and possessed a magnificent rosary of pearls which were greatly coveted by other queens at that time.

Sir Thomas Gresham, of London, was a wealthy subject and is said to have ground a large pearl to powder and mixed it in wine, which he drank to the health of the queen to show a prodigal loyalty to her.

At the time of Columbus, Spain and other European nations considered pearls as among the most valuable jewels, and the early discoverers were required to give a part of the treasures which they found to the king.

On October 12, 1492, when the valiant hero Columbus landed at San Salvador another addition was made to the history of pearls. The natives possessed large quanti-

II. M. QUEEN ALEXANDRA

The History of the Pearl 33

ties of these gems, which were probably from the pearl oyster.

In a letter to Pier Soderini, Amerigo Vespucci related the account of his first voyage and mentioned that the Indians did not realize the worth of their gold, jewels, pearls and other riches, and were liberal with their gifts.

In the year 1499 Sebastian Cabot made his third trip to America, visiting the lands bordering the Gulf of Mexico. He also found the Indians with large quantities of pearls.

Pamfilo de Narvaez, in 1501, found pearls in Santo Domingo, and later found them on the American continent.

In 1 5 12 the aged Juan Ponce de Leon came to Florida and found pearls among the natives.

When Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, he found the Indians along the shore of what is now the Bay of Panama taking pearls from oysters which had been washed ashore during storms and also diving for them near the shore.