Oral English; or, The art of speaking

Front matter

CHSBLES— «

tfALMERn

GIFT Of

Part II — Composition

V. A Speaker's Use of the Four Forms of Discourse 58

VT. The Speaker's Equipment 68

^ VII. How to Plan a Speech 79

VIII. Oral Preparation 88

IX. How to Plan a Story or Description .... 102

X. The Art of Phrasing no

Part III — Argument And Persuasion

XI. The Game of Debate 120

Xn. The Question 127

XIII. H(jw to Use a Liukaky 132

XIV. Analysis of the Question 144

XV. Proof and its Tests i.=;5

XVI. The Hkikf 166

XVII. Development of a Speech from a Brief . . . iSi

X\III. Tm. Handling of Refutation ig2

V vi CONTENTS

XIX. Teamwork 197

XX. Attitude 204

XXI. Introductions and Conclusions 215

XXII. The Persuasive Speech 226

Part IV — Speeches For Special Occasions

XXIII. The Oration 245

XXIV. Speeches of a Presiding Officer 264

XXV. Speeches for Social Occasions 282

APPENDIXES

I. Specimen Outline for a Two-Minute Speech .... 291

II. Subjects for Argumentative and Expository Speeches 293

III. Subjects for Narrative and Descriptive Speeches . . 309

IV. Specimen Introduction to a Debate 317

V. (a) Clash of Opinion and Brief on " Student Government" 319

(b) Brief Arranged for Two or Three Speakers . . 324

VI. List of Debatable Questions with References . . . 326

VII. Subjects for Persuasive Speeches S33

VIII. List of Eulogies for Study 33.5

IX. List of Birthdays for Anniversary Celebrations . . 338 X. List of Addresses Commemorative of Historical

Events 340

XI. Oration Subjects 342

Index 355

Chapter I Our Purpose In Studying The Art Of Speaking

Introduction. — A life without a purpose does not count for much. The sooner we decide on our aim in Hfe the more hkely are we to win success. What is true of one's Hfe is true also of any particular work that one may undertake. If our goal is in sight, if we know just what it is we are working for, our energies are aroused and, almost without knowing it, we do harder work and so get better results. Let us, at the start, then, ask and answer this question: " Why should we study the art of speaking? " Perhaps some one will say, "I do not need to learn to speak well for I do not expect to become a lawyer, a preacher, or a statesman." I hope, however, that when you have fmished reading this chapter you will agree that everyone, rich or poor, brilHant or stupid, boy or girl, should study the art of speaking.

Earning a Living. — In the first place, it will help you to earn a living, and most of those for whom this book is written will have to do that very thing. It may be that you have decided to take an engineering course. You have thought that an engineer does not need to know how to talk; that he needs merely to know how to i)lan and how to work. But the head of the University of

Pittsburgh, when he asked a body of engineers what they considered the most important part of a college course, received a reply about as follows: " You cannot emphasize too strongly the advantages that come to men from the ability to think on their feet, to express a well-thoughtout proposition extempore, to adapt themselves and their conversation instantaneously to changing conditions as they arise." ^ The young man who wishes to be a successful engineer should study mathematics, it is true, but he should study also that art which will enable him to enlist the cooperation of capitalists, whose funds will be necessary to the promotion of his enterprises. Of two engineers, one may have the better plan for the building of a bridge; but, if he is unable to present its merits clearly before the city council, the other may secure the contract.

The boy or girl who intends to enter the business world has even greater need for skill in the expression of thought. The Director of High Schools in Pittsburgh addressed a circular letter to the business firms of the city, asking them to state what is most necessary in order to fit boys for success in business. Ninety-nine per cent laid stress on the advantage of being able to write and speak the English tongue accurately and forcibly. The general manager of an international business house which employs thousands of salesmen said, " I never can get enough men for the more important positions of the firm because there are so very few men who can present their own arguments clearly and overcome the

1 This testimony, as well as that which follows from business men, has been adapted from an article written by Allan Davis and published in Tkc Speaker, No. 21.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 3

arguments of the other side without giving offence. I have three positions paying $5000 per year and I am unable to get men of the personality to fill them." No matter what you have for sale, be it ribbons or real estate, your success will depend somewhat upon the way in which you present its worth.

Do not make the mistake of thinking that you will learn to talk after you have made your start in business. The fact that you are unable to speak for yourself may destroy your chance to make the start. The employer of to-day, whether he be a banker or a member of a school board, is not satisfied with a written application. He desires a personal interview, and that candidate is most successful who, other things being equal, is best able to present his case. If, then, we wish to belong to that class which is wanted, if we wish to keep out of the ranks of the unemployed, we must not only be capable but we must also know how to make our capabilities recognized.

Self-mastery. — While the ability to earn a livelihood is of primary importance and should be given first consideration in planning our education, there is scarcely a human being who does not wish to be something more than a mere healthy animal. We desire the full development of our powers. We covet that self-mastery which will place us at case in all the circumstances of our social life. Self-command and the use of well-chosen words are marks of culture which may be exhibited in conversation as well as before an audience. This is well illustrated by the story of a poor French youth who once went in mean attire to call upon one of Napoleon's statesmen. He was received with coldness, but he showed so much intelligence in conversation that the statesman accompanied him to the door, saying, " My young friend, we receive an unknown person according to his dress; we take leave of him according to his merits."

When we first attempt to speak before our classmates, we usually discover that we are not masters of ourselves. Our bodies are not our faithful servants. Our knees tremble, our eyes fear to meet those of our listeners, and our hands seem too large for the pockets in which we seek to hide them. Even our minds are rebelhous and refuse to act freely.

But, if we continue to practice, we shall see, both in ourselves and in others, fear giving place to confidence and awkwardness to ease. It may even be that a few who read this chapter to-day will become the Wendell Phillipses and the Henry Ward Beechers of tomorrow. Through a mastery of self they may gain the power to arouse multitudes to right action and to convert howls and hisses into applause and support. Such power can come only as a result of special gifts and dihgent study. The debater who wins a few victories over a rival school has made only a beginning. The study of the art of public speech, like that of painting and music, may well be made the work of a hfetime.

Citizenship. — Although many of us have neither the abihty nor the desire to become orators, we can all develop our powers so as to make of ourselves valuable citizens; and it is in this aim rather than in the winning of personal success that we shall find our highest motive for effort. Each one should wish to take an active and useful part in the life of his community and state. In our democratic nation, the one who can speak for himself and his fellows in clear, concise Enghsh will have innumerable oppor-

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 5

tunities for service. Much of the work of the world is now done through organizations. If we desire to promote the interests of a certain class or group of people, we form a labor union, a grange, a lodge, a woman's club, or a medical association. If we wish to help humanity in general, we organize a church, a Y. M. C. A., a Salvation Army, an Associated Charities, or we call a mass meeting to raise money for those who suffer from flood, famine, or war. In order that our government may be of, hy, and for the people, we form civic and political clubs and call meetings to discuss the need of a better road, a larger schoolhouse, or a new charter. Large bodies of men and women must be moved to action. If those who are wise and good do not help to form public opinion, the unwise and the evil will do so in order to advance their own selfish interests. The mere talker, it is true, will always be held in contempt, but the man who can both act and influence others to action will be justly counted a most worthy citizen. Could an Abraham Lincoln or a Woodrow Wilson have given so large a measure of service to his country if he had failed to study the art of pubHc speech?

Every group of people, large or small, young or old, must have its leaders. Each one who desires the largest usefulness should so prepare himself that when the opportunity comes to cast his influence on the side of what is wise and right he can do so with effectiveness. Opportunities will not be wanting even in the hfe of the school.

It is evident from the nature of the case that this influence can be exerted most advantageously in the public assembly. The man who can think only when he writes will be of little use in a crisis when important measures are to be decided. It has been said that the pen is mightier than the sword, but it is not mightier than the tongue. As Professor Charles Sears Baldwin of Yale University says, " The greatest practical achievement of expression is still, and always will be, a great message by a great speaker."

Conclusion. — Why, then, should you study the art of speaking? Why should you study it with earnestness and perseverance, although you labor under great handicaps and are often discouraged? If you are poor, it will help you to self-support; if you are well-to-do, it will enable you to use your influence as well as your money to some good purpose. If you are brilliant, it may gain for you the privilege of molding public opinion at some great crisis in your nation's history; if you are stupid in the use of language, even the slight power which you will acquire may be the means of giving you a chance to show what you can do in other lines. If you are a boy, it will help you to live a man's largest and richest life; if you are a girl, you may be thankful that you live in an age when it is no less womanly to speak in public than it is to embroider or to cook, and that, with these larger opportunities, come greater responsibilities and greater usefulness.

TOPICAL OUTLINE Our Purpose

Introdh

idion.

II. The question which we should ask

Body.

I.

Help in earning a living.

A. The engineer.

B. The business man.

C. The one who seeks a position.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 7

II. Help in acquiring self-mastery.

A. Our desire for self-mastery as a social grace.

B. Our present condition.

C. Our future.

III. Good citizenship.

A. Opportunities open to a good speaker in a demo-

cratic nation.

B. The influence of a speaker as compared with that of

a writer.

Conclusion

I. Value of a knowledge of the art of speaking to

A. The poor or the well-to-do.

B. The brilliant or the stupid.

C. The boy or the girl.

Exercise I. — Read the chapter and be able in class to recite from the topical outline.

Chapter II Voice Training

Introduction. — Part I of this text aims to teach the student how to acquire a good dehvery. A speaker is said to have a good dehvery when he is well poised before his audience and when he can use his vocal organs so as to produce an audible and pleasing tone. Since ease and power in the use of the voice and body cannot be gained except by patient and diligent practice, it is well for the student to learn at the outset the principles which govern good delivery and to strive to apply them throughout his course in the art of speaking.

It is a mistake to think that one's voice, like the color of one's eyes, cannot be changed. A bad voice is, in the great majority of cases, merely a bad habit. Everyone has in his voice a musical instrument of great value. He needs only to learn how to play upon it. He may overcome the wrong habit of using his vocal instrument, as other wrong habits are overcome, by learning how to establish a correct habit.

A voice of power and charm is much to be desired. There is a general impression that the voice is an index to character. It is suspected that the boy with the breathy or high-pitched voice is lacking in manly qualities. It is thought that the girl with the harsh or nasal tone is less feminine than her soft-voiced sister. Whether or not this is always true, we must admit that it is particularly disappointing to hear discordant tones issue from the lips of a beautiful girl or woman. If we notice the tones which we hear on the street-car, in the shops, and in the homes, we find that, unfortunately, very few people have formed the habit of using their voices correctly.

I. The Voice-Machine and the Organ

The human voice-machine has been compared to a single reed-pipe of a church organ.^ This instrument consists of three parts, a wind-chest, a reed, and a pipe, or resonance chamber. The reed is an elastic plate in which there is a narrow sHt. The air, which is pumped into the wind-chest by bellows, tries to escape through the narrow sHt, thus causing the edges of the elastic plate to vibrate and produce sound. The tone so created is set free in the pipe, where it resounds and grows louder before it is permitted to reach the outer air.

The lungs may be compared to the wind-chest, the vocal cords to the reed, or the edges of the elastic plate, and the tone passage, composed of the cavities of the throat, mouth, and nose, to the resounding chamber, or pipe, of the organ.

Although these two instruments, the human voice and the organ, are very much alike, there is one great difference. Our human reed-pipe has a marvelous power of adjustment which is impossible in the organ. We can, by a slight change in the shape of the resonance chambers, change the quality of the tone so that it may express fear or courage, sorrow or joy. It is because of this wonderful • W. A. Aiken, The Voice, p. 6.

lo ORAL ENGLISH

power to respond to the thought and feeling of its owner, that we may consider the human voice the greatest of musical instruments.

II. Conditions Necessary to Good Tones

If we wish to secure tones which are musical and pleasing, and at the same time strong and audible, we must establish certain tone conditions.

Control of the Breath. — In the first place, we must learn to control the breath, or, in other words, to manage the wind-chest. The primary requisite for a good tone is a sufficient supply of air. The power to use the lungs to their full capacity depends very largely upon the maintenance of a correct bodily position. One simple direction, " Draw the chin in and up," will, if kept in mind, enable the student to maintain a correct poise. If he will follow this direction, he will notice that the head is brought to an erect position, the chest is raised, the shoulder blades are flattened, the hips are drawn back, and the weight is thrown upon the balls of the feet. This position should be maintained as the student walks to and from his seat, and, in fact, on all occasions, if it is to become natural to him as a speaker. In order to retain it while reading, it is necessary to hold the book or notes on a level with the shoulders. If the speaker, when standing, will place his feet as in the accompanying illustration, he will have not only a genteel appearance but also a good balance. The line a-b should not be longer than three inches.

Having taken the correct position, the speaker should use his entire lung capacity at each inhalation. If one

VOICE TR.\INIXG ii

uses only the upper portion of the lungs, the chest and even the shoulders will rise and fall with each breath; on the other hand, when one breathes correctly, the chest remains firm and high and the body expands and contracts at and just above the waist line.

The student must next learn how to hold and use this supply of air so that it will not escape too rapidly. After the breath has been taken in, there should be a feeling of tension about the whole torso, or central body. It may be helpful to think of the body as an elastic balloon which collapses very gradually. This sense of firmness, or elasticity about the torso, is called by singers " support of tone," " column of air," or " breath control." When speaking or reading, the student should never allow the chest to fall, but should exhaust the air from the lower part of the lungs first, renewing the supply frequently. The habit of speaking with a full chest results in a " chest tone," as distinguished from a " breathy " voice.

The Open Tone Passage. — In the second place, we must learn to open and relax the tone passage in such a way that the tones produced by the passage of the air over the vocal cords may have a chance to resound and increase before they reach the outer air, as do the tones in the pipe of an organ.

The resonance chamber of the mouth should be made as large as possible. The teeth should be separated in front about an inch, or the width of two fingers. The back part of the mouth should be enlarged also; that is, the muscles and membranes in the region next to the throat should be drawn back. If the student will follow these directions, he cannot fail to notice an increased volume and richness of tone.

Moreover, by keeping the mouth well open, he will be able to avoid poor articulation, or " mumbling." This common fault is due to inactivity of the lips. If, however, the jaws are held far apart in the production of the vowel sounds, the lips are forced to discharge their duty in the formation of the consonant sounds and good articulation is a result.

The throat must be kept open. A tense, closed throat will cause a rasping or " throaty " voice. This not only produces unpleasant sounds but also wearies the speaker himself. It is the cause of what is usually called " minister's throat." A tight throat can easily be recognized by a " click " which is most noticeable in words beginning with a vowel. In order to open the throat and prevent this " click," which is caused by the tension of the swallowing muscles, vocal teachers give various instructions, such as, " Make a tunnel of your body; feel as if about to yawn; stretch the circular muscles of your throat."

The nasal passages, also, must act as resonators. We must learn to secure nasal resonance and, at the same time, to avoid nasal " twang." The former can be secured by an attempt to " feel the tone through the whole face." The latter, nasal " twang," is caused by drawing down the soft palate and raising the back part of the tongue. This position prevents mouth resonance. It can be corrected by an attempt to keep down the back part of the tongue.

Prolonging the Vowel Sounds. — In the third place, we must not only learn to retain the breath and enlarge the tone passages, but we must apply these tone conditions to the vowels; that is, we must learn to prolong the vowel sounds.

As the consonants have very little sound value, the " carrying power " of the voice depends largely upon the quaUty of the vowel sounds. The habit of cutting off the vowel sounds is a common defect among untrained speakers. Their voices lack " carrying power " because they lack resonance. Even singers, who, in song, naturally prolong the vowels, sometimes have poor speaking voices for this very reason. They fail to maintain an openness of the tone passage long enough to enable the vowel sounds to be reinforced. Thus, in an attempt to secure loudness, they strain the throat muscles and produce a harsh rather than a " singing " tone.

The habit of holding the vowel sounds will, on the other hand, make the voice audible even when it is lacking in strength. Whenever we halloo to some one at a distance, we unconsciously apply this principle. The farther we wish to send our voices, the longer we hold the vowel. Those who are accustomed to addressing large audiences in the open air, speak with great slowness for this reason. The best actors, who use this method, can make even their whispered words heard in every part of the theater.

III. Skill as the Result of Continued Practice

Skill in the use of the vocal organs, like skill in boxing, tumbHng, or piano playing, is a matter of slow growth anrl cannot be acquired in a day.

Method of Practice. — Although it is necessary for the student U> understand the vocal mechanism as described in this chapter, it will not be wise for him, in trying to produce good tones, t<j center his thought primarily upon the voice-machine and its workings. The effort to remember so many movements to which he is unaccustomed will in itself create a tension of the nerves that will defeat his purpose. He should, rather, let his ear assist him. He should train his ear to recognize the difference between good tones and poor tones. When about to produce a tone, he should fix his mind on the ideal tone, and his vocal mechanism will, to some extent, adjust itself to meet the mental demand. He should then listen to his own tone and compare it with his ideal. When he has discovered his fault, he should exaggerate it, noticing the sensation in his vocal instrument. In this way, he will recognize in his own body the cause of the incorrect tone. He should then try again to imitate the good tone and again notice his bodily sensations. By this method, his ear will become more and more sensitive to tonal quahties and his muscles will gradually become more and more responsive to his will.

Need of Time and Perseverance. — It always requires time and perseverance to substitute a good habit for a bad one. It is not sufficient that we use our voices rightly during the period set aside for practice in the art of speaking. The pianist who practiced with the correct movement for one hour of the day and then allowed himself to use the wrong movement for three hours would be considered extremely foohsh. Every recitation, every bit of conversation, should be made an opportunity to cultivate good vocal habits. The student who uses his vocal instrument rightly on all occasions will be able, without special attention to the matter, to use it rightly on an important occasion. The more frequently he makes the effort, the more quickly will he be able to win success without effort.

All Defects can be Overcome. — Although some have larger natural endowments than others in the matter of

VOICE TR.\IXIXG 15

voice, experience has proved that there is no defect which cannot be overcome. Demosthenes, the greatest of ancient orators, had a weak chest and an impediment in his speech. According to the old story, he cured the former by reciting to the waves and running up hill, and the latter, by speaking with pebbles in his mouth.

Henry Ward Beecher, who excelled all his contemporaries both in the pulpit and on the platform, suffered, when a child, from enlarged tonsils and a small throat. His aunt says that when he came to her house on an errand, she was obhged to ask him to repeat his message several times before she could understand him. For nine years he gave constant attention to his voice. Of this period, Mr. Beecher himself says, " There was a large grove lying between the seminary and my father's house and it was the habit of brother Charles and myself to make the night and even the day hideous with our voices, as we passed backward and forward through the wood, exploding all the vowels from the bottom to the top of our voices." Later, he was able " to bewitch his audierices out of their weariness by a voice, not artificial, but made, by assiduous training, to be his second nature."

These two famous examples show us that the human voice is a musical instrument which will not only respond to the skillful player, but which will grow stronger and more flexible as a result of proper use and treatment.

Conclusion. — In this chapter we have learned: (1) that the human voice may be compared to the reed-pipe of a church organ; (2) that if we wish to secure good tones, we must learn to control the breath, keep the tone passage open, and prolon.i; ihe vowels; and (3) that skill in the use of the vocal organs is a matter of slow growth.

Introduction

I. Reason for beginning with the study of delivery.

II. A bad habit.

III. Desirability of a good voice.

Body.

I. The voice-machine and the organ.

A . The parts of a reed-pipe.

B. Their likeness to the parts of the voice-machine.

C. The main difference.

II. Conditions necessary to good tones.

A. Control of the breath.

1. Necessity of a large supply of air.

(a) Bodily position as related to air supply. (h) Wrong and right way to breathe.

2. Right use of the air supply.

B. The open tone passage.

1. The open mouth.

(a) Its relation to articulation.

2. The open throat.

(a) Bad results of a closed throat.

(b) Symptoms.

(c) Cure.

3. Nasal resonance versus nasal "twang."

C. Prolonging the vowels.

1. Ill effects of cutting off the vowels.

2. Power to be gained by holding them.

III. Skill as the result of continued practice.

A. Method of practice.

1. Danger of centering the mind on the vocal

mechanism.

2. Method of training the ear.

B. Need of time and perseverance.

C. Possibility of overcoming all defects.

VOICE TIL^INING 17

III. C, I. Demosthenes.

2. Henr>' Ward Beecher.

3. Difference between the human voice and other

musical instruments.

Conclusion.

Exercise I. — Read in the text as far as the topic, "The Open Tone Passage" and be able to recite from the topical outHne. N. B. — All vocal exercises may be taken either in a sitting or standing position (head erect, chest high, feet flat on the floor, and hands at waist). Exercise II. — For Deep Breathing, (a) Inhale quickly through the nose, expanding the middle of the body. Do not raise the shoulders. At the same time, relax all parts of the tone passage (throat, tongue, jaw, separating the teeth but not the lips).

(b) Exhale through the mouth, the middle of the body gradually collapsing like a balloon. The chest should remain high.

Note. — If you find it difficuU to learn this method of breathing, practice it frequently after going to bed or before rising, as you can do it more easily when Ij^ng down.

Exercise III. — Read in the text as far as Division III, and be able to recite from the topical outline.

Exercise IV. — For Open Mouth, (a) Repeat syllable fa four times in one breath. Open the mouth as wide as possible.

(b) Inhale ^ fa — a — a — a (f ) Inhale fa — 1 — e — i — e

(d) Inhale fii — o — u — 6b

In exercises b, c, and d, do not change the position of the jaw after giving fii. If necessary, insert two fingers between the teeth to prevent it. The variations in the vowel sounds are caused by changes in the shape cf the tongue. Greater resonance is secured if the jaws are held open.

(e) We, wick, wack, walk. Repeat three times in one breath, opening the mouth as wide as possible.

Exercise V. - For Open Throat and Breath Retention. (</) 00 —