High School English Composition

Preface

The High School English Composition is intended as a text-book for use in the Lower Schools of the High and Continuation Schools. But, although the treatment is elementary, it covers the whole course in Composition, and may, therefore, be used as a basis of review in the Middle School also.

As the plan and method of treatment here followed is different from that found in most text-books on Composition, a word of explanation may be necessary.

In most Composition text-books each division of the subject is dealt with fully before another division is taken up. In this book, however, the material has been arranged according to what is sometimes known as the “spiral” method. The simpler points in paragraphing, sentence-structure, etc., are presented side by side in the earlier chapters, and the lessons are arranged in the order of increasing difficulty. The advantages of this spiral method of treatment are that the lessons are graded in difficulty, and that it is possible for the pupil to cover the different divisions of the subject in an elementary way during the first year. In this way a suitable course is provided for the pupil who is able to remain only one year at school.

The book is divided into two parts : Part I for the

first year, and Part II for the second.

Part I deals with the elements of punctuation and form ; the choice and use of words ; the structure of the sentence, the paragraph, and the whole essay ; and also with the principles of simple narration, exposition, description, and argument.

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Part II deals chiefly with qualities of style, figures of speech, and with the more complex forms of composition. At the close of Part II a chapter has been added which contains a brief summary of the rhetorical principles that are treated in the preceding chapters.

It has been thought best to divide the material into chapters and sections. In general, each chapter in Part I treats of subject-matter, form, diction, paragraphstructure, sentence-structure, oral composition, and the study of a picture. In Part II also an attempt has been made to follow a definite plan in the arrangement of the material.

In using the High School Composition as a text-book with his classes, it will be well for the teacher to bear in mind the following points:

1. Some of the sections may be covered in a single lesson, but many sections contain material for a number of lessons.

2. In some sections the work provided is elementary, and having regard to the attainments of his class, the teacher will, of course, exercise his judgment as to what parts, if any, may be omitted.

3. The text-book throughout has been prepared for the pupil, and the teacher again will decide for himself how much additional work should be taken up.

Chapter I Page

1 . Planning and Writing a Story ....... 1

2 . Capitals and Punctuation . . . . . ... 7

3 . Divisions between Sentences . . . . . . .10

4. Choice of Words ......... 13

5. Oral Narration : Colloquial Language . . . . . .15

6. A Picture : “Home After the First Voyage” . . . . .18

Chapter II

7 . Simple Explanation .......... 19

8 . The Paragraph : Unity in . . . . .23

9 . Punctuation : The Comma ........ 26

10. The Incomplete Sentence ........ 29

11 . Oral Composition : Planning a Speech . . . . .31

12 . A Picture : “ Breaking the Road ” . . . . .34

Chapter III

13. Simple Description .......... 36

14. The Indefinite and the Inaccurate Use of Words . . . .40

15. The Loosely Constructed Sentence . . . . .45

16. The Paragraph : The Topic Sentence ...... 47

17. Oral Description: Addressing the Audience . . . . .50

18. A Picture : “Oversleeping” ........ 54

Chapter IV

19 . Business Letters .......... 56

20. Variations in the Form of Business Letters . . . .60

21 . Friendly Letters . . . . . . . .62

22. Narration : Conversation ........ 64

23. Direct and Indirect Narration ........ 69

24. Punctuation : The Semicolon, the Colon, and the Dash . . .72

25. The Paragraph : Coherence . . . . . . .76

26. Oral Narration : The Speaker’s Voice . . . .82

27. A Picture : “Putting in the Finishing Touches” ... . .86

Chapter V

29. Common Errors in Grammar . . . . . .92

31 . The Paragraph : Emphasis ........ 99

32. Oral Composition : How to Secure Emphasis ..... 103

33. A Picture : “ The Maids of Honour ” . . . . . . 106

34. The Point of View, and the General Image. ..... 108

35. Order of Words to Promote Clearness . . . .114

36. Repetition of Words . . . . . . .117

37. The Paragraph : Transition . . . . .120

38. Oral Composition : Holding Attention ...... 123 .

39. A Picture : “ The End of the Day ” ....... 127

Vlll

CONTENTS

Chapter VI

40. The Body of the Business Letter

41. The Body of the Personal Letter

42. Social Correspondence

43. Simple Argument ....

44. Words : Brevity .

46. Emphasis in the Sentence

47. The Procedure of Debate

48. A Picture : “ The Gleaners”

PAGE

Chapter VII

49. Narration : Interest in . . . .

50. Changes of Tense . . . . .

51 . Ambiguity ... ...

52 . Long and Short Sentences

53 . Oral Composition : Oratory

54. A Picture : “ The Ghost Story ”

Chapter VIII

55. Exposition : (continued) .

56. Ellipsis .....

57 . Periodic and Loose Sentences

58. Punctuation : Divided Usage

59. Oral Exposition

60. A Picture : ‘‘The Armada in Sight”

Chapter IX

61 . Varieties of Description .......

62. Appropriate Words .

63 . Uses of the Participle and the Gerund ....

64 . Parallel Construction .......

65. Oral Composition : Vividness, Picturesqueness

66. A Picture : ‘‘Portrait of George Gisze” ....

68 . Hackneyed and Pretentious Expressions ....

69 . Figures of Speech : Simile, Metaphor, Metonymy. Synecdoche

70. Melody and Harmony .......

71 . Oral Composition : Exposition ......

72. A Picture : “The Old T^mgraire” .

73. Exposition by Narration and by Description

74 . Propriety and Precision in Diction ....

75. Variety in the Paragraph ......

76. Coherence in the Sentence ......

77 .• Oral Composition : Emphasis ......

78. A Picture : “ The Adoration of the Magi ”

Chapter X

79 . Argumentation and Exposition ....... 257

80 . The Planning of an Argumentative Essay ...... 262

81 . Figures of Speech (continued) ........ 264

82. Simple Language and Idiomatic Expressions ..... 267

84. A Picture: “A Reading from Homer ” ...... 278

85. Summary : The Whole Composition, the Paragraph, and the Sentence 280

HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH COMPOSITION

PART I

CHAPTER I I. PLANNING A STORY Read the following story : THE BONDSMAN AND THE KING

James the Fifth had a custom of going about the country disguised as a private person in order that he might hear complaints which might otherwise not reach his ears. When James travelled in disguise he used a name which was known only to some of his principal nobility and attendants. He was called the Goodman (the tenant, that is) of Ballengiech. Ballengiech is a steep pass which leads down behind the Castle of Stirling.

Once upon a time, King James, being alone and in disguise, fell into a quarrel with some gypsies or other vagrants, and was assaulted by four or five of them. This happened to be very near the Bridge of Cramond ; so the king got on the bridge, which, as it was high and narrow, enabled him to defend himself with his sword against the number of persons by whom he was attacked.

There was a poor man threshing corn in a barn near by, who came out on hearing the noise of the scuffle, and seeing one man defending himself against numbers, gallantly took the king’s part with his flail, to such good purpose that the gypsies were obliged to fly. The countryman then took the man into the barn, brought him a towel and water to wash the blood from his face and hands, and finally walked with him a little distance toward Edinburgh, in case he should again be attacked.

On the way, the king asked his companion what and who he was. The labourer answered that his name was John Howieson, and that he was a bondsman on the farm of Braehead, near Cramond, which belonged to the king of Scotland. James then asked the poor man if there was any wish in the world which he would particularly desire should be gratified ; and honest John confessed that he should think himself the happiest man in Scotland were he but proprietor of the farm on which he wrought as labourer. He then asked the king who he was, and James replied, as usual, that he was the Goodman of Ballengiech, a poor man who had a small appointment about the palace ; but he added that, if John Howieson would come to see him on the next Sunday, he would endeavour to repay his manful assistance, and, at least, give him the pleasure of seeing the royal apartments.

John put on his best clothes, as you may suppose, and, appearing at a postern gate of the palace, inquired for the Goodman of Ballengiech. The king had given orders that he should be admitted ; and John found his friend, the goodman, in the same disguise which he had formerly worn. The king, still preserving the character of an inferior officer of the househ/T conducted John Howieson from one apartment of the palace another, and was amused with his wonder and remarks.

At length James asked the visitor if he should like to see the king ; to which John answered that nothing would delight him so much, if he could do so without giving offence. The Goodman of Ballengiech, of course, undertook that the king would not be angry. “But,” said John, “how am I to know his grace from the nobles who will be all about him ?” “Easily,” replied his companion ; “all the others will be uncovered — the king alone will wear his hat.”

So speaking, King James introduced the countryman into a great hall, which was filled by the nobility and officers of the crown. John was a little frightened and drew close to his attendant, but was still unable to distinguish the king. “I told you that you should know him by his wearing his

THE PARAGRAPH hat,” said his conductor. “Then,” said John, after he had again looked around the room, “it must be either you or me, for all but us two are bareheaded.”

The king laughed at John’s fancy ; and, that the good yeoman might have occasion for mirth also, he made him a present of the farm at Braehead, which he had wished so much to possess. — Sir Walter Scott

Before we begin to write a story we must decide whether it is better to tell it in the first person, as if we had taken some part in the action, or in the third person, as if we had had no part in it. Is the foregoing story told in the first, or in the third, person ?

We must in the next place plan the story, — in other words, we must decide what material we intend to make use of, and in what order the incidents are to be related. As a general rule, all the details relating to the same incident are grouped together into one division of the story. This division is known as a paragraph. In planning a story, then, we must :

i- Write down the subject of each paragraph, and make a note of the details that we intend to include in it.

2. See that the paragraph headings are so arranged that the incidents in the story follow one another naturally.

If you examine the foregoing story you will find that the plan is as follows :

THE BONDSMAN AND THE KING

1. The king in disguise

2. His fight with the gypsies

3. The rescue

4. The promise of reward

5. The visit to the palace

6. The bondsman’s wish to see the king

7. The assembly in the palace hall

8. The king’s generosity

Now examine this plan and you will notice that, in each paragraph, the writer includes only such points as have a direct bearing upon his story. He could not omit any of the details about the king’s disguise, the fight with the gypsies, John Howieson’s desire for the farm, or the visit to the palace, without spoiling his narrative; and on the other hand, if he were to go out of his way to tell us about the cause of the quarrel with the gypsies, or to describe the farm or the king’s palace, we should agree that these details were quite unnecessary, for they have no direct connection with the main subject of the story.

You will notice also that in the opening paragraphs the writer introduces us at once to the main character, and gives us an idea as to the time and place at which this incident occurred. After this preliminary information is given, the various minor incidents are related in the order of time in which they took place, — the countryman’s help, his visit to the castle, his meeting with the king, and, finally, his reward. This is the usual order of arrangement in telling a story.

Taking the foregoing passage as a model, we may now sum up the main points to be observed in writing a story :

1. Decide whether it should be written in the first or in the third person.

2. Select only such details as have a direct bearing on the story , and group into paragraphs those which are closely related.

3. In the opening paragraph, give the necessary introductory information as to time, place, circumstances , and characters.

4. Arrange the paragraphs in their proper order, which is usually the order of time in which the various incidents have taken place.

WRITING THE STORY

EXERCISE I

Draw up a plan for a story on one topic in each of the following groups :

( a ) Horatius

Rip Van Winkle The Pied Piper of Hamelin The Great Stone Face Herv4 Riel

( b ) When Our House Took Fire How We Won the Race The Snowball Fight

A Brave Rescue An Adventure in the Woods “I once met with a serious accident ”

WRITING THE STORY

You have already drawn up plans for stories on at least two of the subjects given in Exercise i. Select the subject upon which you think you can write best ; refer to your plan and write a story, a page or a page and a half of foolscap in length.

You should first write a rough draft of your story in your work book. In writing the rough draft do not spend too much time in attempting to secure accuracy of expression. If you cannot think of the best word to express a particular shade of meaning, leave a blank, or use another word in the meantime, and go on with your story.

In making paragraph divisions you should at the outset follow your plan. Sometimes, however, while you are engaged in writing your composition, new ideas will occur to you, and you may find that you can improve your story by modifying your original plan.

When your rough draft has been completed, read it over to see that your story is properly planned, and that you have not left out any important details. You are now ready to rewrite it in your composition exercise book, making the necessary corrections as you go along.

But you must see to it that your story is finally transferred to your composition book in satisfactory form. It is important, for example, that your title should be correctly written and placed. Notice how the following titles are printed:

A Tale of Two Cities Dombey and Son Anne of Green Gables Three Men in a Boat

Do all the words in these titles begin with capital letters ? If not, when and why are small letters used ? Examine the placing of the title in any book you have at hand. In what part of the line is it printed ? Is the space between the title line and the first line the same as that between the first line and the second ? If you have examined carefully, you should arrive at the following conclusions :

1. That the first word and the most important of the other words of a title should be written with initial capitals.

2. That less important words, such as prepositions, conjunctions, and articles, should be written with small letters, except when they begin the title.

3. That the title should be written in the middle of the first line of the page, and that a considerable space should be left between the title line and the first line of your essay.

Furthermore, your whole story consists of several paragraphs. How are you to indicate where one paragraph ends and the next begins? Examine the form of the first,

CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION and of several following, paragraphs in any book. Does any paragraph begin on the last line of the preceding paragraph ? At what part of the line does the first line of the opening paragraph begin ? Where does the first line of each of the succeeding paragraphs begin ? You find that :

1. Every paragraph must begin on a new line.

2 . The first line of the opening paragraph properly

begins at the margin.

3. The first line of each succeeding paragraph

begins a short distance away from the margin to indicate to the eye the paragraph divisions.

This is called the indentation of the paragraph.

You have already noticed that the important words of your title should be written with initial capitals. But within the paragraph you have smaller divisions, called sentences. Note that each of these, too, must begin with a capital letter.

After your story is rewritten, you should, before handing it in, read it over once more, in order to make final corrections. In so doing examine it carefully with respect to the following points :

1. Is the title properly placed ? Do the important words in it begin with capitals ?

2. Are the paragraphs indented ? Does each paragraph deal with only one division of the story ?

3. Does each sentence begin with a capital letter ?

2. CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION

Uses of Capitals. We have already noticed that each sentence must begin with a capital, and that the first word, and other important words in a title are to be written with capitals. Are these the only cases in which capital letters should be used ? Examine the following :

1. In that same village, there lived, many years si,nce, a simple, good-natured fellow, of the name of Rip Van Winkle.

2. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson, must remember the Kaatskill Mountains.

3. Poor Rip sighed, “My very dog has forgotten me.”

In the first two sentences we find that the proper names are written with capitals. In the third, the quoted statement, “My very dog has forgotten me,” begins with a capital.

We may then sum up the rules that we have learned thus far, for the use of capitals, as follows :

Capitals must be employed :

1. In the important words of a title.

2. At the beginning of every sentence.

3. In all proper names.

4. At the beginning of a direct quotation, if it forms a sentence.

Quotation Marks. Examine once more the third sentence in the preceding examples, and notice how the quoted statement is marked off from the rest of the sentence. You will observe that besides beginning with a capital it is :

1. Inclosed in quotation marks.

2. Preceded by a comma. (As we shall see later, in some sentences other punctuation marks are used in place of the comma.)

The Close of the Sentence. Let us consider, in the next place, what marks are used to indicate the close of the sentence. Notice the following examples :

1. The unlucky Rip was at last routed by his wife.

2. Tell me your name, my good woman.

3. Does nobody know poor Rip Van Winkle ?

4. A spy ! A refugee ! Away with him !

THE HYPHEN AND THE APOSTROPHE

These expressions differ in form, and we find that the punctuation at the close of the sentence varies according to the form in which the thought is expressed. We must use :

1 . A period at the end of every assertive or imperative

sentence.

2. An interrogation point after every direct question.

3. An exclamation mark after every sentence, or part

of a sentence, expressive of very strong feeling.

The Hyphen and the Apostrophe. Two other marks, the hyphen and the apostrophe, must be carefully used. Observe how they are employed below :

1. Rip was a simple, good-natured man, and an obedient, hen-pecked husband.

2. On nearer approach to him, he was still more surprised at the stranger’s appearance.

You will notice that the hyphen is used:

1. To separate the members of the compound words,

good-natured and hen-pecked. (See Ontario High

School Grammai, p. 82.)

2. To mark the break in the word surprised at the

close of the line. (See Ontario High School

Grammar, p. 74.)

Note that a word can be divided only at the end of a syllable, and that words of one syllable must not be divided at all.

The apostrophe should be used to indicate the possessive case, as, for instance, in the following :

Poor Wolf, thy mistress leads thee a dog’s life of it !

Rip’s story was soon told.

For the various ways of forming the possessive case of nouns, consult the Ontario High School Grammar, p.

no.

IO

Supply capital letters and all necessary punctuation marks in the following :

i. a company of odd looking persons were playing at nine pins 2. he cried out in despair does nobody here know me 3. wildly he shouted, down with the tyrants of england 4. king robert fiercely said, open, ’tis I, the king art thou afraid 5. ’tis a bandy legg’d high Shoulder’d, worm eaten seat 6. Shakespeare died on april 23, 1564 7. off

off let me up cried abdullah, climbing up zamzammah s wheel 8. let me up shrilled little chotalal in his gilt embroidered cap 9. what’s your name, my good woman, asked rip 10. dear, dear, how queer everything is to-day and yesterday things went on just as usual have I been changed in the night was I the same when I got up this morning I almost think I can remember feeling a little different but if I’m not the same, the next question is, who in the world am I ah, that’s the great puzzle

3. DIVISIONS BETWEEN SENTENCES

We have already learned that each sentence must begin with a capital and end with a period, or with some other mark which indicates a full stop. In writing a composition, examine each sentence after you have completed the final draft, to see that this rule has been observed.

Sometimes when two or more thoughts are closely related we include them in the same sentence, as, for instance, in the following :

1. The very village was altered ; it was larger and more populous. There were rows of houses which he had never seen before, and those which had been his familiar haunts had disappeared.

2. Steep mountains overhung the scene ; great oaks and chestnuts grew upon the slopes or in story terraces. Ah

DIVISIONS BETWEEN SENTENCES

II night long a strong wind blew up the valley, and the acorns fell pattering over me from the oaks.

But in such sentences we always use some means to keep the different statements separate. For instance, in the first sentence in each of the foregoing examples, the two statements are separated by a semicolon ; in the second sentence, in each case, they are separated by a comma, and the relation between the thoughts is shown by the conjunction and. But, as a general rule, the comma must not be used to mark the division between statements, and we must be careful not to run our sentences together in a continuous series, with only commas to separate them, as, for instance, in the following :

1. The very village was altered, it was larger and more populous, there were rows of houses which he had never seen before, those which had been his familiar haunts had disappeared.

2. Steep mountains overhung the scene, great oaks and chestnuts grew upon the slopes or in stony terraces, all night long a strong wind blew up the valley, the acorns fell pattering over me from the oaks.

We may now sum up what we have learned regarding the separation of our statements, as follows :

1. Each sentence must begin with a capital and end with a period , or with a note of interrogation or of exclamation.

2. Two or more statements that are closely related are sometimes included in the same sentence , separated by a semicolon.

j. A comma is not generally used to separate two statements. (Exceptions to this rule will be considered later.)

Rewrite the following paragraph so as to show what punctuation and lettering should be used at each vertical line ,

— whether a period followed by a capital , or a comma or a semicolon followed by a small letter. Read the selection after you have rewritten it.

The valley looked even lovelier by morning | and soon the road descended to the level of the river | here, in a place where many straight and prosperous chestnuts stood together | making an aisle upon a swarded terrace | I made my morning toilette in the water of the Tarn | it was a marvellously clear thrilling pool | the soapsuds disappeared as if by magic in the swift current | and the white boulders gave one a model for cleanliness | to wash in one of God’s rivers in the open air seems to me a sort of cheerful solemnity or semi-pagan act of worship | to dabble among the dishes in a bedroom may perhaps make clean the body | but the imagination takes no share in such a cleansing | I went on with a light and cheerful heart | and sang psalms to the spiritual ear as I advanced.

Rewrite the following passages, making the proper divisions between the statements that they contain :

1. Noon in the country is very still the birds do not sing the workmen are not in the field the sheep lay their noses to the ground the herds stand in pools under shady trees lashing their sides but otherwise motionless the mills upon the brook far above have ceased for an hour their labour the stream softens its rustle and sinks away from the sedgy banks the heat plays upon the meadow in noiseless waves and the beech leaves do not stir.

2. There are three creatures, the squirrel, the field-mouse, and the bird called the nuthatch, which live much on hazel-nuts and yet they open them each in a different way the first after rasping off the small end splits the shell in two with his long fore-teeth as a man does with his knife the second nibbles a hole with his teeth, as regular as if

CHOICE OF WORDS drilled with a wimble, and yet so small that one would wonder how the kernel could be extracted through it the last picks an irregular ragged hole with his bill but this artist has no paws to hold the nut with while he pierces it like an adroit workman he fixes it as it were in a vice in some cleft of a tree or in some crevice and when standing over it he perforates the stubborn shell.

4. CHOICE OF WORDS

Having noted the principal divisions of our composition, the paragraph and the sentence, and the manner of indicating them, we must find out whether some words are not better than others to express our meaning suitably.

Consider the wording of these sentences :

1. Don’t give me any back talk.

2. That boy takes the cake.

3. There were a lot of people present.

Back talk in the first sentence is a colloquial and decidedly vulgar expression. Takes the cake in the sense of “wins the prize” is slang. The phrase a lot of as the equivalent of “many”, is very common in conversation. Properly, however the words mean “a division of”. This expression should not be used in our written work. Our composition must contain no word not sanctioned by our best writers, and no good writer would employ any of these words as they are used here. One may readily ascertain whether a word is in good usage or not, by referring to a good dictionary.

Again, notice the language of the following :

1. At last we stood on terra firma.

2. I guess that you are right.

It is quite unnecessary to use any foreign expression in the first sentence. “Dry Land” fully expresses our meaning. We should never employ a foreign word when we have already a good English equivalent. In the second sentence, guess is a good English word ; but it is only in parts of America that it is used in the sense of “think”. Its correct meaning is “conjecture”. Our words should be used only in the sense in which they are employed by the English-speaking people as a whole.