On the philosophy of painting: a theoretical and practical treatise..

Preface

No apology is perhaps expected, on the part of an amateur, for offering considerations on the philosophy or aesthetic tendency of art ; for general principles concerning the polite arts are, or ought to be, included in those branches of study which constitute a liberal education : but any practical rules and advice which do not emanate from a professor, are expected to be withheld, unless there be strong motives for making them public. And although an acquaintance with the principal galleries in Europe may be greatly desirable for an amateur, and render more valued his opinions in matters of art, the office of prescribing rules and principles is nevertheless convi

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siderecl to belong to professional writers, who have indeed already, in a great measure, supplied every demand. However, the only justifiable grounds for the manifestation of any kind of ill feeling on the part of artists, in this respect, would be, the apprehension of a professional injury ; and there may certainly be some reason why amateurs who handle the brush, or wield the pen on subjects connected with the fine arts, should abstain from pursuing any course which might be detrimental to this branch of instruction. The unprofessed writer can, perhaps, scarcely expect to escape censure, unless he keep strictly to those theoretical and general principles which artists have seldom the opportunity and leisure to investigate ; or unless, when dilating on particulars of more limited influence, he place them in such a light, and consider them in such a manner, as will solicit more precise or more comprehensive explanation,— making it his constant aim to spread a desire for further inquiry.

The inducements which have led me, on this occasion, to outstep the usual limits of dissertations or criticisms on art, are not so much to be traced to a decided predilection and unwearied

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vii zeal for this pursuit, as to circumstances of a very different nature. Weakness of sight, which compelled my submitting to a considerable degree of restraint in the absorbing practice of art, prevented a free and spontaneous realization of the impressions which had been formed on the master-works of Nature, and on the choicest productions of eminent men : but this circumstance led me the more to investigate the nature of the principles whose pervading and insinuating influence indirectly supplies these inexhaustible stores of intellectual enjoyment ; and I was led to consider, with immediate reference to the process of painting, in what manner any particular schemes might be carried out most effectually, with the least fatigue to the organ whose delicate condition required so much attention. In this manner, I became the more conversant with the theory of art, in proportion as its practice was denied me; and what has been to myself a source of privation, may, perhaps, not be without its benefit to others, if I have been able to express sufficiently clearly and impressively, the truths which have been gathered with the help of experience and reflection.

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There are ample reasons why it is desirable that the formation and guidance of a national taste, should not be left exclusively to those whose position and circumstances are such that their judgment cannot remain entirely unbiassed. The universal prevalence and applicability of art, combined with the powerful influence which it exercises on the mind and sentiments, render its effects decidedly beneficial or pernicious, according to the direction which is given to the cultivation of it in society. If one of its frequent callings be to amuse our volatile fancy, it must be remembered that, in its right and proper sphere, art becomes more or less directly the solace of the sick and of the infirm, for whom the consolations of the most charitable condolence would at length cease to avail, without the cheering and truly enlivening influence which art, in its various forms and characters, so extensively diffuses. If to this substantial good be added, the advantages of delicacy and refinement, which the cultivation of the arts extends to every subject on which the intellect is exercised, we must admit that it is raised high above all ephemeral and frivolous pursuits : and if desirable that it should not

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ix practically be entrusted to unskilled hands, how much the more essential it is that its direction be kept entirely free from vulgar influence, and that, as of late years has been the case, the voice of men who stand eminent in art itself, and of those zealous followers who are not exactly included in its circle, be frequently and distinctly heard ! Thus may art be preserved from falling, abject and degraded, in the midst of its lofty mission.

Writers on art, who do not confine their views to one particular school or country, but admit its influence as cultivated by different nations, may sometimes contribute effectually to dispel prejudiced, exclusive, and one-sided ideas ; for the more art is generalized, the less likely is it to fall into a condition of self-sufficiency which discovers beauties in that method only of interpreting nature, to which the eye has been long accustomed, and the mind gradually trained. Its influence will ever become the more beneficial, in proportion to the extent to which it diffuses kindred tastes and feelings amongst various nations.

Doubts have been continually raised as to the

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expediency of rules and principles as applied to art. But have those who entertain such doubts well considered if there be any cases at all to which rules may be applied ; and, if so, to what extent they may be made available ? Let the question be entered into, and precise limits assigned to the use or withholding of rule, and I believe that few minds, at all conversant with art, would maintain any further doubts as to the utility, and indeed as to the occasional necessity, of guiding principles. Even in science, practice is sometimes placed, by the ignorant, above theory, because it is practice which realizes the immediate and visible result ; but without theory — without the first application of the principles of force and motion, — what would practical skill have to act upon, or what results could the greatest manual dexterity produce ? Very different, however, are the limits assignable to theory, in mechanical sciences, and in art. Rules, as it has been generally admitted, are no substitute for genius. They would never have produced the Galatea, the Transfiguration, or the School of Athens. But if instances have been afforded,

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of genius combined with a judgment so true, and a taste so pure, that rules became impotent and useless, it is not its characteristic to afford secure and unfailing guidance, either in the planning or in the execution of a work. Theory would indeed be worse than useless in the art of painting, were it to claim, as its special office, to rule the inspired thought, and to assert principles of grace in the lively creations of the fancy. Its advantages are chiefly shown in correcting the errors, and in chastening the productions, of those who want the penetration and experience necessary to proceed unguided. A more extended knowledge of the principles on which art is founded, might not add many to the best of the yearly productions of our artists, although it might diminish immensely the number of the inferior ones ; and by thus rendering the attainment of that which is at least genuine and good, more easy and certain, it doubtless confers a benefit on art in general, which ascends less obstructed, and, it may be, to a loftier position, when seated on the foundation of truth, than when based on, inconsistency, chance, or extravagance. The baneful influence which Mr. Payne Knight in xii

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particular ascribes to the application of theory in art, is chiefly limited to those lyceums and academies which he sets* forth as examples of its pernicious effects. When rules are imposed with authority, and precepts set forth with an assurance not to be controverted, their tendency is to curb genius, and to arrest the onward movements of persevering industry; but a plain enunciation of the principles which govern alike external nature and the various modes of imitation which art adopts, can have no injurious influence, when received willingly and without bias. If any danger may arise from this kind of inquiry, it is encountered entirely by the inquirer himself. He, indeed, tests theories, engages in the thankless work of probation, sows, and reaps perhaps that which is unprofitable ; but the failures of such attempts fall upon himself. No stranger to these researches — no harmless patient, (can as much be said in favour of another very necessary art ?) suffers in the acquirement of that experience which can often be gained but by experiment. The inquirer after theory, may lose, in the perplexing solution of a problem, that fire and energy which are neces-

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sary for carrying out a great design — perhaps, indeed, part of the feeling with which he hoped4 to embellish and elevate his aim; but he who finds the problem already solved, and who proceeds on principles which his reason admits, without having striven to unravel them, has no incumbrance in the pursuit of his object; and, whilst his judgment has been enlightened, all the enthusiasm and sentiment which accompany him in the pursuit of art still remain.

Owing to the remote and indirect nature of the influence which is exercised by theory, it is impossible to say what may be its extent, or, what art might have been if sound principles of taste had not, from time to time, been proclaimed by such men as Winckelmann, Raphael Mengs, and Reynolds. Far enough from the true path, has the spirit of innovation, vanity, and mannerism, already led the art of painting, in the very countries in which it shone with the purest lustre. Still more wild and eccentric might have been its course, had not a firm and experienced hand now and then assisted in leading the way, and in pointing out a great and useful end.

What do we perceive if we examine the usual xiv

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course of the progress made by any individual in art ? From the earliest, I might say infantine, attempts at drawing, we may trace a change in the ideas entertained with regard to imitation, which is commensurate with the progress of the performer, and which certainly cannot be due to the exercise of the hand alone. The child, and the uninstructed in art, alike seem to consider it of the greatest importance to omit nothing which they are able to see. Continuity of form appears to them a point of first necessity. A boundary line, studiously even and unbroken, of an object so situated as to afford the fullest view, is deemed the best and most natural expression of it. This impression is but conformable to the first notions entertained concerning the appearance of objects ; such notions being entirely referable to the most familiar and habitual associations. The feeblest apprehension is aware, that every creature, whether destined for the air, the water, the meadow, or the road, has a calling different from that of its neighbour ; and to such gross and evident distinctions as these, are the earliest attempts at drawing directed.

The step above this, which is not attained

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XV without instruction in art, is that in which effect takes the place of servile delineation. Expression becomes, here, substituted for the dullest assertions of form. Some parts are made prominent, whilst others are kept in retirement, or entirely out of sight. The horse, or the ox, appears before you in a lively and distinct image : but count its members, and you will perhaps find that all are not indicated. Some are concealed ; others are kept in obscure shadow. Yet the horse thus painted with effect, may appear to stand quite as firmly on three legs, as did a first attempt at one on four ; and the comparatively few parts which are made distinct and conspicuous in this second stage of the art, give a more lively impression of the whole animal, than did the delineation of its entire form, scrupulously but spiritlessly completed. Thus, as the knowledge of art increases, the attention is gradually withdrawn from the most conspicuous appearances of nature, to be directed to those effects, less obvious to the understanding, which chiefly constitute the ease and gracefulness of every scene.

" Draw objects as you see them " cannot be

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urged, even with reference to nature, without explanation ; for many things there are, which "are not perceived though present, and many others which, though almost absent, become, with regard to their influence, strikingly prominent. The reflection of trees in water, is put in by the earliest beginner; because reflection, though not a primary fact, is one so generally and immediately connected with our enjoyments, that it is not easily forgotten : but to the query, — is the reflection to be of the green colour of the trees, or of the muddy colour of the wTater ? the answer, or the course to be pursued, might not so readily suggest itself ; although, if the water were muddy at all, there could hardly be any doubt that the reflection would be of the colour of the water ; and if there were a slight but sharp ripple, the reflection of the tree would in some cases be swept away altogether. With regard to the tree itself, as it is composed alike of branches and foliage, the beginner is induced to put in circumstantially both ; although, perhaps, the leaves, and a portion of the trunk, are alone distinctly visible. Many such examples might be adduced, to show that a general and

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xvii most superficial observation of nature, chiefly influences the ideas which are first entertained with regard to imitation: ~ The inexperienced gives undue importance to those things which are connected with definite and useful purposes, and disregards those of which we are not reminded by our necessities, and whose nature is indeterminate and variable : whereas, the experienced in the art of painting, frequently substitutes effects which are indirect and remote, for those which are conspicuous and evident; knowing this to be one of the most efficient means for obtaining softness, ease, and all those qualities which are opposed to formality.

The third stage in art, is that in which sentiment and feeling are the predominating principles. An ingenuous love for the beautiful in nature, here supersedes the happiest results of tuition : and the work of art which so overflows with the sentiment infused into it, that the spectator becomes a necessary sharer in those emotions, is raised to the most honourable station. But it is in this most delicate period of the art, that those resources which are the result of long experience and practice are most required. Their

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deficiency causes the language of inspiration to be intelligible to the performer only; and their neglect converts the brightest images of the fancy into wild and disconnected abortions.

The present volume is intended to form the complement of the " Elements of the Picturesque/' hitherto printed for private distribution only, and which is of a more descriptive and less theoretical character. One work is, in some degree, dependent on the other ; and the entire subject will become complete, only with the intended publication of the volume on the Picturesque.

In the plan of this work, the materials naturally divide themselves into three parts. I have appropriated the first to general and theoretical information, including an exposition of the views entertained by various authors on subjects more or less immediately connected with the fine arts. I believe such preparatory training to exercise a beneficial influence in the cultivation of art ; but should it not have these advantageous results, it may be not the less essential that the reader be made acquainted with the leading theories entertained concerning

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xix the influence of the external world on the impulses of man,— that his mind be set at rest with regard to such controvertible points as most readily suggest themselves, and that he be spared the many useless speculations which he might be induced to make, did he not find the ground already surveyed before venturing upon it. A second division comprises those subjects which are more practically connected with imitation and composition in the art of painting : whereas, I have reserved for the third part, remarks on Perspective, including projected shadows and reflection. The plan which I have chiefly aimed at, with reference to these last subjects, has been that of assembling, and bringing to bear upon each other, distant points of connection; endeavouring, by a collective and generalizing survey of the principles which have the most extensive influence in these branches of science, to afford a view of the broad and massive groundwork whereon is raised the fair superstructure which is usually exhibited to our view. At the same time, aware that I have but opened this phasis of the subject, and but partially withdrawn the veil which intercepts our glance, I anticipate,

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from the endeavours of others, the entire removal of that dimness which seems to obstruct our searching inquiries into the problems of perspective, whenever our investigation extends to the foundation of its principles.

Conformably to the nature of the subjects treated of in the present work, it may be expected to afford that kind of satisfaction which generally succeeds to the acquirement of information, rather than that fleeting amusement which is the result of temporary excitement. It may be therefore suggested, that the perusal of the book should not be left to those moments of lassitude and ennui when the mind feels the want of an exhilarating principle, but rather that it should be taken up when there is the vigour necessary for sedulous application, and a desire to master some new inquiry with regard to art. It may be further suggested, that the part on Perspective, which requires most attention, be read simultaneously, that is in connection, with the first and second parts ; but reading combined with the exercise of the art of painting, may be deemed here, as indeed in all similar cases, especially advisable. The validity of the

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xxi remarks is thus at once tested : besides, nothing impresses more any acquired information, than the carrying of it into practice. Such hints as these may look something like the doctor's prescription, where the manner of using is, or ought to be, always forwarded with the drug ; but if books are to be in any degree useful, as well as entertaining, there can be no reason, adducible either from logic or from good sense, why the manner of using them most calculated to prove beneficial, should not be plainly stated.

As the practical remarks which are contained in the following pages are in no wise founded on materials borrowed from other works, I have rarely had occasion to allude to the excellent modern treatises which have been published by some of our most experienced artists ; the many references which will meet the eye of the reader bearing chiefly on those works of more ancient date, which have treated of art philosophically; an insight into which seemed best calculated to afford the general information necessary to prepare the mind.

The course which I have pursued in the theoretical dissertations of the first part, has xxii

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seldom led across the path which the Graduate of Oxford has hitherto chosen. His important work, entitled " Modern Painters," admirably calculated to stir up men's feelings, to inspire them with a lively relish for the scenery of nature, and to give to modern art a new and vigorous impulse, seems less especially intended to point out means and ways. What may still come forth from this able and eloquent writer, is yet unknown ; and it is not impossible that the similarity of our respective aims may produce some slight clashing either of facts or of impressions. This would not lessen the value of any new position gained on either side. Exertions applied from different quarters on a similar object, not unfrequently lead to the same result. However this may be, competition always engenders progress, and useful truths are seldom elicited without extensive and various research.

It may perhaps in general be found preferable to exclude illustrative plates from works on art, unless the author, by executing them himself, is able fully to carry out the principles and effects which it is his object to explain. The impossibility for any individual to enter fully

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xxiii into feelings and impressions which are not his own, and to represent certain characteristic appearances of nature which he has not witnessed, necessarily renders very uncertain the success of any illustrations which are not planned and carried out by the same mind. On the other hand, a work on art, without illustrations, appears incomplete. The rejection of the very means and resources which art supplies, seems an injustice done to her, and tends to engender feelings of doubt as to whether the principles advanced are susceptible of realization by the means which she places at our command. These last considerations have determined my intermingling a few plates with the letter-press ; although the limited care and attention which I have been enabled to bestow on them, have prevented their being executed with the usual advantages. An impartial reader will, however, bear in mind two facts : firstly, that the plates are not intended to illustrate the effects of nature which are most beautiful, but those which are important, as being the usual results of certain determinate causes ; and, secondly, that the text refers to the most efficient and powerful means xxiv

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which art supplies for attaining the effects intended to be exemplified, whereas the pages of a book admit but of a very limited and inefficient means of representing nature.

With regard to the plan of dictating, to which I have had recourse, the difficulties attending it have been fully compensated by the patience, zeal, and perseverance of my young assistant Mr. G. Webster.

ERRATA.

e 3, line 1 ; for reasoning, read reason.

110, line 5; and page 154, line 2; for airs of the counte-

nances, read airs of the countenance.

111, line 2 from bottom ; for Cistus, read Cestus. 138, line 17 ; for proceed, read to proceed.

270, line 10 from bottom ; for gallery, read galleries. 293, line 18 ; for onset read outset.

337, line 2 ; for width on the perpendicular plane, read depth

on the vanishing plane. 418, line 6 from bottom ; for at the same so undefined, read

at the same time so undefined. 434, line 2 from bottom ;for seen profile, read seen in profile.

Part I. Aesthetics Considered With Reference To Art

Page

Introductory I

Analysis of the Leading Views which have been entertained CONCERNING THE NATURE OF THE BEAUTIFUL 14

On the Elementary Principles which constitute the Beautiful.

Introductory Remarks 41

The Sublime 4a

The Grotesque 61

Elegance 68

Principles necessary or conducive to the Perception of the Beautiful.

Early developement of the influence of Association 74

Alison's views on Association considered 77

Accidental Association 82

Contrast 87

Contrast of Proportion 88

Contrast of Expression 89

Contrasts of Succession 00

Design 97

Regularity and Symmetry ion

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CONTENTS.

Page

Intricacy 102

Indistinctness 105

Remaeks on Taste and the Ideal.

On Taste 107

On the Ideal 108

Part II. Subjects Practically Connected With Imitation In Painting

Composition.

General Rules 119

Impropriety of Exaggerated Action 128

Equilibrium 131

On the Supernatural in Composition 132

Composition in the Landscape 135

Forms of Composition which are adapted for Landscapes 142 Forms of Landscape Composition adopted by the Old

Masters 145

Expression.

With Reference to the Figure 148

Expression in the Landscape 160

Relations of Light and Shade.

Predominating Influence of Light 164

Differences which result, in the impression produced on the Eye, by the dimensions of the contrasting Object or Tint 173

On Chiaro-Scuro 189

Lights of Divers Hues 193

Shadows of Divers Hues 194

Cursory Remarks on the Projected Shadow 197

Shadows in the Figure 199

CONTENTS.

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On some of the Properties of Light.

Page

A Distinction drawn between Positive Light and Accidental Reflexes, on the Surfaces of Objects 202

Distinction between Definite and Indefinite Reflections 207

Effects of Reflected Light further Developed 208

Reflected Lights on Furniture, Household Utensils, &c. 215

Transmitted Light 220

With reference to Draperies, &c 220

Transmitted Light in Liquids 223

Tkansparency in Painting 224

Principles of Colouring.

Relations of Colours 227

On Natural Harmony, resulting from the usual Relations

of Lights and Colours in Nature 228

Simultaneous Contrasts of Colour 236

How far the Harmony of Nature is attainable by the Art

of Painting 241

Harmony of Nature ; considered with reference to Practice

Advancing and Retiring Properties of Colours 258

With regard to the Relative Tone of Objects in the

Landscape 262

Harmony of Effect, or Accidental Harmony 266

Artificial Colouring, in connection with the Supernatural

in Composition 272

Styles of Painting.

Choice of a Style suitable to the Subject 277

Styles of Painting, considered with reference to the

Powers of the Artist 280

Style, considered as a means of lessening the Difficulties of

Execution 284

Practical Remarks.

Execution 289

Execution in Landscape Painting 290

Elementary Studies 293

Process of Painting used in Italy 296

Handling 301

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CONTENTS.

Part III

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE, PROJECTED SHADOWS, AND REFLECTION ON POLISHED SURFACES.

Linear Perspective.

Page

Remarks on the prevailing Methods of Teaching Perspective 304

Developement of the Principles of Perspective 309

Application of the Theory of Perspective 333

Inclined Planes 350

The Knowledge of Perspective which is requisite in the

Picture Gallery 354

Point of Observation 355

Foreshortening 359

Further particulars connected with the Observer's Station 361

Projected Shadows.

Definition of Projected and Local Shadows 377

Effects of the Diffusion of Shadows further explained . . . 380

Ray of Shadow projected through Space 383

Theoretical Considerations on the Projection of Shadows 385

Shadow of the Geometrical Point, and of the Right Line 387 Shadows projected by Objects having two Extensions, or

one Plane 389

Shadows of Solid Bodies 400

On the relative Situation of the Shadow, of the Object,

and of the Luminary 400

Process usually employed for putting Projected Shadows

into Perspective 405

Shadows projected on variously inclined Surfaces 409

Shadows projected on irregular Surfaces 415

PERSPECTIVE OF REFLECTIONS.

A few Practical Hints 424

Relative distance of the Object and of the Mirror 425

Relative Position of the Object and of the Mirror 431