On the genesis of species

Chapter I. Intbo Duotort

The Problem of the Genesis of Species stated. — Nature of Its Probable Solution. — Importance of the Question. — Position here defended. — Statement of the Darwinian Theory. — Its Applicability to Details of Geographical Distribution ; to Rudimentary Structures ; to Homology ; to Mimicry, etc. — Consequent Utility of the Theory. — Its Wide Acceptance. — Reasons for this, other than, and in Addition to, its Sclentlflo Value. — Its Simplicity. — Its Bearing on Religious Questions. — Odium Theologieum and Odium Antitheologicum. — The Antagonism supposed by many to exist between It and Theology neither necessary nor universal. — Christian Authorities in favor of Evolution. — Mr. Darwin's "Animals and Plants under Domestication." — Difficulties of the Darwinian Theory enumerated . . . . p. 18

Chapter II

THE INCOMPETENCY OF {t NATURAL SELECTION " TO ACCOUNT FOB THE IN- CIPIENT 8TAOES OF USEFUL STRUCTURES.

Mr. Darwin supposes that Natural Selection acts by Slight Variations. — These must be useful at once. — Difficulties as to the Giraffe ; as to Mimicry ; as to the Heads of Flat-fishes ; as to the Origin and Constancy of the Vertebrate Limbs ; as to "Whalebone ; as to the Young Kangaroo ; as to Sea-urchins ; as to Certain Processes of Metamorphosis ; as to the Mammary -gland ; as to Certain Ape Characters ; as to

G

CONTENTS.

the Rattlesnake and Cobra ; as to the Process of Formation of the Eye and Ear, as to the Fully -developed Condition of the Eye and Ear ; as to the Voice ; as to Shell-fish; as to Orchids; as to Ants. — the Necessity for the Simultaneous Modification of Many Individuals. — Summary and Conclusion . . . . p. 85

Chapter III. The Coexistence Of 0l08elt-bimilar Structures Of Diverse Origin

Chances against Concordant Variations.— Examples of Discordant Ones.— Concordant Variations not unlikely on a non-Darwinian Evolutionary Hypothesis. — Placental and Implacental Mammals.— Birds and Reptiles.— Independent Origins of Similar Sense Organs. — The Ear. — The Eye. — Other Coincidences. — Causes besides Natural Selection produce Concordant Variations in Certain Geographical Regions. — Causes besides Natural Selection produce Concordant Variations in Certain Zoological and Botanical Groups. — There are Homologous Parts not genetically rela tod. — Harmony in respect of the Organic and Inorganic Worlds.— Summary and Conclusion . p. 70

Chapter IV. Minute And Gradual Modifications

There are Difficulties as to Minute Modifications, even if not fortuitous.— Examples of Sudden and Considerable Modifications of Different Kinds. — Prof. Owen's View. — Mr. Wallace. — Prof. Huxley. — Objections to Sudden Changes. — Labyrinthodont. — Potto.— Cetacea— As to Origin of Bird's Wing.— Tendrils of Climbing Plants.— Animals once supposed to be Connecting Links. — Early Specialization of Structure. — Macrauchenia. — Glyptodon. — Sabre-toothed Tiger. — Conclusion . . p. Ill

Chapter V. As To Specific Stability

What is meant by the Phrase M Specific Stability ; " such Stability to be expected a 2>riori, or else Considerable Changes at once. — Rapidly-Increasing Difficidty of intensifying Race Characters ; Alleged Causes of this Phenomenon ; probably an In-

CONTENTS. 7

tcrnal Cause cooperates. — A Certain Dcflnltcness In Variations. — Mr. Darwin admits the Trinciple of Specific Stability in Certain Cases of Unequal Variability. — The Goose. — The Peacock. — The Guinea-fowl. — Exceptional Causes of Variation under Domestication.— Alleged Tendency to Reversion.— Instances.— Sterility of Hybrids— Prepotency of Pollen of Same Species, but of Different Race— Mortality in Young Gallinaceous Hybrids. — A Bar to Intormixture exlsta somewhere. — Guinea-pigs.— Summary and Conclusion . . . . . p. 127

Chapter VI. Species And Time

Two Relations of Species to Time. — No Evidence of Past Existence of Minutely- Intermediate Forms when such might be expected a priori.— Bats, Pterodactyls, Dinosauria, and Birds. — Ichthyosauria, Chelonla, and Anoura. — Horso Ancestry.— Labyrinthodonts and Trilobltea. — Two Subdivisions of the Second Relation of 8pocles to Time. — Sir "William Thomson's Views. — Probable Period required for Ultimate Speclflo Evolution from Primitive Ancestral Forms. — Geometrical Increase of Time required for Rapidly-multiplying Increase of Structural Differences. — Proboscis Monkey. — Time required for Deposition of Strata necessary for Darwinian Evolution. — High Organization of Silurian Forms of Life. — Absence of Fossils In Oldest Rocks. — Summary and Conclusion . . p. 142

Chapter VII. Species And Space

The Geographical Distribution of Animals presents Difficulties.— These not Insurmountable In themselves; harmonize with other Difficulties. — Fresh-water Fishes. — Forms common to Africa and India; to Africa and South America; to China and Australia ; to North America and China ; to New Zealand and South America; to South America and Tasmania; to South America and Australia.— Pleurodont Lizards. — Insectivorous Mammals. — Similarity of European and South American Frogs. — Analogy between European Salmon and Fishes of New Zealand, etc. — An Ancient Antarctic Continent probable.— Other Modes of accounting for Facts of Distribution.— Independent Origin of Closely-similar Forms.— Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . p. 158

CONTENTS.

Chapter VIII. Homologies

Animals made up of Parts mutually related In Various Ways.— What Homology Is. — Its Various Kinds. — Serial Homology. — Lateral Homology. — Vertical Homology. —Mr. Herbert Spencer's Explanations. — An Internal Power necessary, as shown by Facts of Comparative Anatomy. — Of Teratology. — M. St. Hllaire.— Prof. Burt Wilder.—Foot-wings.— Facts of Pathology.— Mr. James Paget— Dr. William Budd.— The Existence of such an Internal Power of Individual Development diminishes the Improbability of an Analogous Law of Specific Origination. . . p. 1G9

Chapter IX. Evolution And Ethics

The Origin of Morals an Inquiry not foreign to the Subject of this Book.— Modern Utilitarian View as to that Origin.— Mr. Darwin's Speculation as to the Origin of the Abhorrence of Incest — Cause assigned by him Insufficlent^-Caro of tho Aged and Infirm opposed by * Natural Selection;" also Self-abnegation and Asceticism.—Distinctness of the Ideas "Bight" and " Useful"— Mr. John Stuart Mill.— Insufficiency of " Natural Selection " to account for the Origin of the Distinction between Duty and Profit — Distinction of Moral Acts into " Material " and " Formal."—No Ground for believing that Formal Morality exists In Brutes.— Evidence that it does exist in Savages.— Facility with which Savages may be misunderstood.— Objections as to Diversity of Customs.— Mr. Hutton's Review of Mr. Herbert Spencer. — Anticipatory Character of Morals. — Sir John Lubbock's Explanation.— Summary and Conclusion . . . . . .p. 202

Chapter X. Pangenesis

A Provisional Hypothesis supplementing u Natural Selection.11 — Statement of the Hypothesis.— Difficulty as to Multitude of Gemmules. — As to Certain Modes of Reproduction.— As to Formations without the Requisite Gemmules. — Mr. Lewes and Prof. Delplno. — Difficulty as to Developmental Force of Oemumles. — As to their Spontaneous Fission.— Pangenesis and Vitalism. — Paradoxical Reality. — Pangenesis scarcely superior to Anterior Hypothesis. — Buflon. — Owen.— Herbert Spencer.—" Gemmules " as Mysterious as " Physiological Units."— Conclusion . p. 223

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XI. STBOIFIO OKNKSIfl

Review of the Statements and Arguments of Preceding Chapters. — Cumulative Argument against Predominant Action of " Natural Selection." — "Whether any Thing positive as well as negative can he enunciated. — Constancy of Laws of Nature does not necessarily Imply Constancy of Specific Evolution. — Possible Exceptional Stability of Existing Epoch.— Probability that an Internal Cause of Change exists.— Innate Powers somcwhore must be accepted. — Symbolism of Molecular Action nnder Vibrating Impulses. — Prof. Owen's Statement. — Statement of the Author's View.— It avoids the Difficulties which oppose " Natural Selection."— It harmonizes Apparently Conflicting Conceptions. — Summary and Conclusion . p. 285

Prejudiced Opinions on the Subject. — " Creation " sometimes dented from Prejudice.— The Unknowable. — Mr. Herbert Spencer's Objections to Theism; to Creation. — Meanings of Term " Creation." — Confusion from not distinguishing between " Primary " and " Derivative " Creation. — Mr. Darwin's Objections. — Bearing of Christianity on the Theory of Evolution. — Supposed Opposition, the Result of a Misconception.— Theological Authority not opposed to Evolution. — St Augustine. — St. Thomas Aquinas. — Certain Consoquences of "Want of Flexibility of Mind. — Reason and Imagination. — The First Cause and Demonstration. — Parallel between Christianity and Natural Theology.— What Evolution of Species Is.— Prof. Agasslz. — Innate Powers must be recognized. — Bearing of Evolution on Religious Belief. — Prof. Huxley. — Prof. Owen. — Mr. Wallace. — Mr. Darwin. — A priori Conception of Divine Action. — Origin of Man. — Absolute Creation and Dogma. — Mr. Wallace's View. — A Supernatural Origin for Man's Body not necessary. — Two Orders of Bolng in Man.— Two Modes of Origin.— Harmony of the Physical, Hyporphyslcal, and Supernatural.—Reconciliation of Science and Religion as regards Evolution. — Conclu-

CilAPTER XII.

THEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION.

Blon

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FAOK

Leaf Butterfly In flight and repose {from Mr. A. Wallaces " Malay's Archipelago") .......... 43

Walking-Leaf Insect ........ 47

Pleuroncctidm, with tho peculiarly placed oyo In different positions (from Dr.

Traqnair's paper in Linn. Soc. Tram., 1805) . . . . 49,180

Mouth of Whale {from Prof. Owen?* " Odontography'1'1) ... 68 Four plates of Baleen seen obliquely from within {from Prof. Owen's " Odontography'1'') ......... 54

Echinus or Sea Urchin . . • . . . . .56,181

Pcdlcellarlrc of Echinus very much enlarged ..... 59

Cobra {from Sir Andrew Smith's " Southern Africa") . . . '63 Wlngbones of Pterodactyl, Bat, and Bird {from Mr. Andrew Murray's

" Geographical Distribution of Mammals") . . . . 77,144,171

Skeleton of Flying-Dragon . . . . . . . . 78, 172

Centipede {from a specimen in the Museum of the Royal College of Sur-

Teeth of Urotrichus and Peramclcs 82 The Archeoptcryx {from Prof. Owen's 11 Anatomy of Vertebrata ") . . 86, 146

Cuttle-Fish * 88, 155

Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus ...... 92,121,146,191

Cytheridea.Torosa(/rom Messrs. Brady and Robertson's paper in Ann. and

Mag.ofyat.m*t.,mti) 98

A Polyzoon, with Bird's-head processes ...... 94

Bird's-head processes greatly enlarged ...... 95

Antechinus Minutissimus and Mus Dellcatulus {from Mr. Andrew Murray's

" Geographical Distribution of Mammals'"') .... 96

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FAGS

Outlines of Wings of Butterflies of Celebes compared with those of allied species elsewhere ......... 100

Great Shielded Grasshopper ....... 103

The Six-shafted Bird of Paradise 104

The Long-tailed Bird of Paradise . . . . . . 105

The Bed Bird of Paradise 10G

Horned Flies 107

The Magnificent Bird of Paradise 10T

{The above seven figures are from Mr. A. Wallace** "Malay Archipelago.'"'')

Much enlarged horizontal Section of the Tooth of a Labyrinth odon {from Prof.

Owen"1*" Odontography") . . . . . . .118

Hand of the Potto {from life) . 119

Skeleton of Plesiosaurus ....... 120,147,192

The Aye- Aye {from Trans. ofZool. Soc.) ..... 122

Dentition of Sabre-toothed Tiger {from Prof. Owen's " Odontography M) . 125

Triloblte 149, 185

Inner side of Lower Jaw of Plourodont Lizard {from Prof. Owen's " Odontography'") ......... 162

Solenodon {from Berlin Trans.) . . . . . . .103

Tarsal Bones of Galago and Chelrogaleus {from Proc. Zool. Soc.) . . 173

SquUla 174

Parts of the Skeleton of the Lobster . . . . . . 175

Spine of Galago Allenll {from Proo. Zool. Soo.) . . . . .176

Vertebral of Axolotl {from Proo. Zool. Soc.) ..... 179

Annelid undergoing spontaneous fission . . . . . 188, 226

Skeleton of Manus and Pes of a Tailed Batrachian {from Prof. Gegenbaxtr's

44 Tarsus and Carpus ")....... 192

Flexor Muscles of Hand of Nycticetus {from Proc. Zool. Soc.) . m . . 194 The Fibres of Corti 296

TEE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

Chapter I. Introductory

The Problem of the Genesis of Species stilted.— Nature of Its Probable Rotation.— Importance of tho Question. — Position here defended. — Statement of the Darwinian Theory. — Its Applicability to Details of Geographical Distribution ; to Rudimentary Structures ; to Homology ; to Mimicry, etc. — Consequent Utility of the Theory. — Its Wide Acceptance. — Reasons for this, other than, and in Addition to, Its Scientific Value. — Its Simplicity. — Its Bearing1 on Religious Questions. — Odium Theologicum and Odium AntitJieologicnm. — The Antagonism supposed by many to exist between it and Theology neither necessary nor universal. — Christian Authorities in fhvorof Evolution— Mr. Darwin's "Animals and Plants under Domestication." — Difficulties of the Darwinian Theory enumerated.

The great problem which has so long exercised the minds of naturalists, namely, that concerning the origin of different kinds of animals and plants, seems at last to be fairly on the road to receive — perhaps at no very distant future — as satisfactory a solution as it can well have.

But the problem presents peculiar difficulties. The birth of a " species " has often been compared with that of an " individual." The origin, however, of even an individual animal or plant (that which determines an embryo to evolve itself — as, e.g., a spider rather than a beetle, a roseplant rather than a pear) is shrouded in obscurity. A fortiori must this be the case with the origin of a " species."

Moreover, the analogy between a "species" and an

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

[Ciixr.

" individual" is a very incomplete one. The word "individual " denotes a concrete whole with a real, separate, and distinct existence. The word " species," on the other hand, denotes a peculiar congeries of characters, innate powera and qualities, and a certain nature realized indeed in individuals, but having no separate existence, except ideally as a thought in some mind.

Thus the birth of a " species " can only be compared metaphorically, and very imperfectly, with that of an " individual."

Individuals, as individuals, actually and directly produce and bring forth other individuals ; but no " congeries of characters," no "common nature" as such, can directly bring forth another " common nature," because, per se, it has no existence (other than ideal) apart from the individuals in which it is manifested.

The problem then is, " By what combination of natural laws does a new * common nature ' appear upon the scene of realized existence ? " i. e., how is an individual embodying such new characters produced ?

For the approximation we have of late made toward the solution of this problem, we are mainly indebted to the invaluable labors and active brains of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace.

Nevertheless, important as have been the impulse, and direction given by those writers to both our observations and speculations, the solution will not (if the views here advocated are correct) ultimately present that aspect and character with which it has issued from the hands of those writers.

Neither, most certainly, will that solution agree in appearance or substance with the more or less crude conceptions which have been put forth by most of the opponents of Messrs. Darwin and Wallace.

Rather, judging from the more recent manifestations of

I]

INTRODUCTORY.

thought on opposite sides, we may expect the development of some tertium quid — the resultant of forces coming from different quarters, and not coinciding in direction with any one of them.

As error is almost always partial truth, and so consists in the exaggeration or distortion of one verity by the suppression of another which qualifies and modifies the former, we may hope, by the synthesis of the truths contended for by various advocates, to arrive at the one conciliating reality.

Signs of this conciliation are not wanting: opposite scientific views, opposite philosophical conceptions, and opposite religious beliefs, are rapidly tending, by their vigorous conflict, to evolve such a systematic and comprehensive view of the genesis of species as will completely harmonize with the teachings of science, philosophy, and religion.

* To endeavor to add one stone to this temple of concord, to try and remove a few of the misconceptions and mutual misunderstandings which oppose harmonious action, are the aim and endeavor of the present work. This aim it is hoped to attain, not by shirking difficulties, but analyzing them, and by endeavoring to dig down to the common root which supports and unites diverging stems of truth.

It cannot but be a gain when the laborers in the three fields above mentioned, namely, science, philosophy, and religion, shall fully recognize this harmony. Then the energy too often spent in futile controversy, or withheld through prejudice, may be profitably and reciprocally exercised for the mutual benefit of all.

Remarkable is the rapidity with which an interest in the question of specific origination has spread. But a few years ago it scarcely occupied the minds of any but naturalists. Then the crude theory put forth by Lamarck, and by his English interpreter, the author of the " Vestiges of Cre-

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

[ClIAl\ ation," had rather discredited than helped on a belief in organic evolution — a belief, that is, in new kinds being produced from older ones by the ordinary and constant operation of natural laws. Now, however, this belief is widely diffused. Indeed, there are few drawing-rooms where it is not the subject of occasional discussion, and artisans and school-boys have their views as to the permanence of organic forms. Moreover, the reception of this doctrine tends actually, thOugli by no means necessarily, to be accompanied by certain beliefs with regard to quite distinct and very momentous subject-matter. So that the question of the " Genesis of Species " is not only one of great interest, but also of much importance.

v/But though the calm and thorough consideration of this matter is at the present moment exceedingly desirable, yet the actual importance of the question itself as to its consequences in the domain of theology has been strangely exaggerated by many, both of its opponents and supporters. This is especially the case with that form of the evolution theory which is associated with the name of Mr. Darwin ; and yet neither the refutation nor the demonstration of that doctrine would be necessarily accompanied by the results which are hoped for by one party and dreaded by another.

The general theory of evolution has indeed for some time past steadily gained ground, and it may be safely predicted that the number of facts which can be brought forward in its support will, in a few years, be vastly augmented. But the prevalence of this theory need alarm no one, for it is, without any doubt, perfectly consistent with strictest and most orthodox Christian theology. Moreover, it is not altogether without obscurities, and cannot yet be con-1 sidered as fully demonstrated.

The special Darwinian hypothesis, however, is beset with certain scientific difficulties, which must by no means

L]

INTRODUCTORY.

be ignored, and some of which, I venture to think, are absolutely insuperable. What Darwinism or " Natural Selection " is, will be shortly explained ; but, before doing so, I think it well to state the object of this book, and the view taken up and defended in it. It is its object to maintain the position that " Natural Selection " acts, and indeed must act, but that still, in order that we may be able to account for the production of known kinds of animals and plants, it requires to be supplemented by the action of some other natural law or laws as yet undiscovered.1 Also, that the consequences which have been drawn from Evolution, whether exclusively Darwinian or not, to the prejudice of religion, by no means follow from it, and are in fact illegitimate.

The Darwinian theory of " Natural Selection " may be shortly stated thus : *

Every kind of animal and plant tends to increase in numbers in a geometrical progression.

Every kind of animal and plant transmits a general likeness, with individual differences, to its offspring.

Every individual may present minute variations of any kind and in any direction.

Past time has been practically infinite.

Every individual has to endure a very severe struggle for existence, owing to the tendency to geometrical increase of all kinds of animals and plants, while the total animal and vegetable population (man and his agency excepted) remains almost stationary.

1 In the last edition of the "Origin of Species" (1869) Mr. Darwin himself admits that "Natural Selection" has not been the exclusive means of modification, though he still contends it has been the most important one.

8 See Mr. Wallace's recent work, entitled 11 Contributions to the Theoty of Natural Selection," where, at p. 302, it is very well and shortly stated.

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

[Chap.

Thus, every variation of a kind tending" to save the life of the individual possessing it, or to enable it more surely to propagate its kind, will in the long-run be preserved, and will transmit its favorable peculiarity to some of its offspring, which peculiarity will thus become intensified till it reaches the maximum degree of utility. On the other hand, individuals presenting unfavorable peculiarities will be ruthlessly destroyed. The action of this law of " Natural Selection" may thus be well represented by the convenient expression, " survival of the fittest." 9

Now, this conception of Mr. Darwin's is, perhaps, the most interesting theory, in relation to natural science, which has been promulgated during the present century. Remarkable, indeed, is the way in which it groups together such a vast and varied series of biological 4 facts, and even paradoxes, which it appears more or less clearly to explain, as the following instances will show. By this theory of "Natural Selection," light is thrown on the more singular facts relating to the geographical distribution of animals and plants ; for example, on the resemblance between the past and present inhabitants of different parts of the earth's surface. Thus in Australia remains have been found of creatures closely allied to kangaroos and other kinds of pouched beasts, which in the present day exist nowhere but in the Australian region. Similarly in South America, and nowhere else, are found sloths and armadillos, and in that same part of the world have been discovered bones of animals different indeed from existing sloths and armadillos, but yet much more nearly related to them than to any other kinds whatever. Such coincidences between the existing and antecedent geographical distribution of forms are nu-

3 11 Natural Selection " is happily so termed by Mr. Herbert Spencer in his " Principles of Biology."

4 Biology is the science of life. It contains zoology, or the science of animals, and botany, or that of plants.

mcrous. Again, "Natural Selection" serves to explain the circumstance that often in adjacent islands we find animals closely resembling, and appearing to represent, each other; while, if certain of these islands show signs (by depth of surrounding sea or what not) of more ancient separation, the animals inhabiting them exhibit a corresponding divergence.6 The explanation consists in representing the forms inhabiting the islands as being the modified descendants of a common stock, the modification being greatest where the separation has been the most prolonged.

" Rudimentary structures " also receive an explanation by meaiis of this theory. These structures are parts which are apparently functionless and useless where they occur, but which represent similar parts of large size and functional importance in other animals. Examples of such M rudimentary structures" are the foetal teeth of whales, and of the front part of the jaw of ruminating quadrupeds. These foetal structures are minute in size, and never cut the gum, but are reabsorbed without ever coming into use, while no other teeth succeed them or represent them in the adult condition of those animals. The mammary glands of all male beasts constitute another example, as also does the wing of the apteryx — a New Zealand bird utterly incapable of flight, and Avith the wing in a quite rudimentary condition (whence the name of the animal). Yet this rudimentary wing contains bones which are miniature representatives of the ordinary wing-bones of birds of flight. Now, the presence of these useless bones and teeth is explained if they may be considered as actually being the inherited diminished representatives of parts of large size and functional importance in the remote ancestors of these various animals.

8 For very interesting examples, see Mr. Wallace's " Malay Archipelago."

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

[Chap

Again, the singular facts of " homology " are capable of a similar explanation. " Homology " is the name applied to the investigation of those profound resemblances which have so often been found to underlie superficial differences between animals of very different form and habit, Thus man, the horse, the whale, and the bat, all have the pectoral limb, whether it be the arm, or fore-leg, or paddle, or wing, formed on essentially the same type, though the number and proportion of parts may more or less differ. Again, the butterfly and the shrimp, different as they are in appearance and mode of life, are yet constructed on the same common plan, of which they constitute diverging manifestations. No a priori reason is conceivable why such similarities should be necessary, but they are readily explicable on the assumption of a genetic relationship and affinity between the animals in question, assuming, that is, that they are the modified descendants of some ancient form— their common ancestor.

That remarkable series of changes which animals undergo before they attain their adult condition, which is called their process of development, and during which they more or less closely resemble other animals during the early stages of the same process, has also great light thrown on it from the same source. The question as to the singularly complex resemblances borne by every adult animal and plant to a certain number of other animals and plants — resemblances by means of which the adopted zoological and botanical systems of classification have been possible — finds its solution in a similar manner, classification becoming the expression of a genealogical relationship. Finally, by this theory — and as yet by this alone — can any explanation be given of that extraordinary phenomenon which is metaphorically termed mimicry. Mimicry is a close and striking, yet superficial resemblance borne by some animal or plant to some other, perhaps very different, animal or plant. The

I]

INTRODUCTORY.

" walking leaf 99 (an insect belonging to the grasshopper and cricket order) is a well-known and conspicuous instance of the assumption by an animal of the appearance of a vegetable structure (see illustration on p. 47) ; and the bee, fly, and spider orchids, are familiar examples of a converse resemblance. Birds, butterflies, reptiles, and even fish, seem to bear in certain instances a similarly striking resemblance to other birds, butterflies, reptiles, and fish, of altogether distinct kinds. The explanation of this matter which " Natural Selection " offers, as to animals, is that certain varieties of one kind have found exemption from persecution in consequence of an accidental resemblance which such varieties have exhibited to animals of another kind, or to plants ; and that they were thus preserved, and the degree of resemblance was continually augmented in their descendants. As to plants, the explanation offered by this theory might, perhaps, be, that varieties of plants, which presented a certain superficial resemblance in their flowers to insects, have thereby been helped to propagate their kind, the visit of certain insects being useful or indispensable to the fertilization of many flowers.

We have thus a whole series of important facts which " Natural Selection " helps us to understand and coordinate. And not only are all these diverse facts strung together, as it were, by the theory in question ; not only does it explain the development of the complex instincts of the beaver, the cuckoo, the bee, and the ant, as also the dazzling brilliancy of the humming-bird, the glowing tail and neck of the peacock, and the melody of the nightingale ; the perfume of the rose and the violet, the brilliancy of the tulip and the sweetness of the nectar of flowers ; not only does it help us to understand all these, but serves as a basis of future research and of inference from the known to the unknown, and it guides the investigator to the discovery of new facts which, when ascertained, it

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

[Chap.

seems also able to coordinate." Nay, " Natural Selection " seems capable of application not only to the building up of the smallest and most insignificant organisms, but even of extension beyond the biological domain altogether, so as possibly to have relation to the stable equilibrium of the solar system itself, and even of the whole sidereal universe. Thus, whether this theory be true or false, all lovers of natural science should acknowledge a deep debt of gratitude to Messrs. Darwin and Wallace, on account of its/ practical utility. But the utility of a theory by no means implies its truth. What do we not owe, for example, to the labors of the Alchemists ? The emission theory of light, again, has been pregnant with valuable results, as still is the Atomic theory, and others which will readily suggest themselves.

With regard to Mr. Darwin (with whose name, on account of the noble self-abnegation of Mr. Wallace, the theory is in general exclusively associated), his friends may heartily congratulate him on the fact that he is one of the few exceptions to the rule respecting the non-appreciation of a prophet in his own country. It would be dillieult to name another living laborer in the field of physical science who has excited an interest so wide-spread, and given rise to so much praise, gathering* round him, as he has done, a chorus of more or less completely acquiescing disciples, themselves masters in science, and each the representative of a crowd of enthusiastic followers.

Such is the Darwinian theory of " Natural Selection," such are the more remarkable facts which it is potent to

6 See Muller's work, " Fur Darwin," lately translated into English by Mr. Dallas. Mr. Wallace also predicts the discovery, in Madagascar, of a hawk-moth with an enormously-long proboscis, and he does this on account of the discovery there of an orchid with a nectary from ten to fourteen inches in length. See Quarterly Journal of Science, October, 1867, and "Natural Selection," p. 275.